Residue analysis links sandstone abraders to shell fishhook productionon San Nicolas Island, California

Kevin N. Smith a, *, Sebastian K.T.S. W€arml€ander b, Ren�e L. Vellanoweth c,Chelsea M. Smith a, William E. Kendig c

a Department of Anthropology, University of California, Davis, USAb Department of Biophysics, Stockholm University, Stockholm, Swedenc Department of Anthropology, California State University, Los Angeles, USA

a r t i c l e i n f o

Article history:

Received 26 March 2014Received in revised form13 November 2014Accepted 22 November 2014Available online 29 November 2014

Keywords:

Archaeological residue analysisX-ray diffractionSEMeEDSSandstone sawsShell fishhooksSan nicolas islandTule creek site(CAeSNIe25)

a b s t r a c t

Excavations at the upper component of the Tule Creek site (CAeSNIe25), dating between approximately600e350 cal BP, yielded numerous well-preserved sandstone abraders referred to as saws. Many of thesetools show heavy use-wear and abundant white residue still adhering to the surface. We used X-raydiffraction (XRD) analysis to characterize the residue from twoof the abraders,which identified themineralphases calcite and aragonite (both CaCO3), albite (NaAlSi3O8), and quartz (SiO2). A scanning electron mi-croscope (SEM) equipped for Energy Dispersive X-Ray (EDS) analysis identified the elements C, Ca, S, Na,and Al in the samples, confirming the XRD results. Albite, quartz, and calcite in the scrapings are consistentwith the mineralogy of sandstone, though the presence of calcium carbonate in the form of calcite andaragonite suggests marine shell is also present in the residue samples. XRD and SEM analysis of a modernred abalone (Haliotis rufescens) shell indicates that the inner-layer (nacre) consists mostly of aragonitephase calcium carbonate, whereas the outer layer (epidermis) is made up mostly of calcite phase. SEMimages revealed that calcite and aragonite fromthe archaeological residues display similarmorphologies asthe material from a modern abalone sample, and a greater presence of aragonite over calcite suggests theabraderswereprimarily used towork the inner layer of the abalone shell. These results provide a functionallinkage between sandstone saws and shell fishhook production at CAeSNIe25.

© 2014 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

1. Introduction

Characterizing ancient residues on artifacts provides importantdata regarding the role and function of tools, weapons, containers,and other artifacts found in archaeological contexts across theglobe (Brieur, 1976; Charters et al., 1993; Eerkens, 2007; Eerkenset al., 2012; Hardy and Garufi, 1998; Jahren et al., 1997). Improve-ments in analytical techniques and integrative methodologicalapproaches have increased the accuracy and reliability of thesestudies (Barton et al., 1998; Haslam, 2004; Kooyman et al., 1992;Regert et al., 2001). Pottery vessels, ground stone implements,and chipped stone artifacts have been the subject of a variety ofdestructive and non-destructive characterization studies (Adams,2002; Eerkens, 2002, 2005; Pearsall et al., 2004). Most of thesestudies focused on identifying organic material such as proteins

(Brieur, 1976; Dier, 2011; Kooyman et al., 1992, 2001), alkaloids(Henderson et al., 2007), lipids (Charters et al., 1993; Dudd et al.,1999; Quigg et al., 2001), and starch grains (Pearsall et al., 2004;Piperno et al., 2004), characterizing residues on artifacts hypothe-sized to have been used for food or beverage processing and stor-age. Techniques used to characterize inorganic materials, on theother hand, are predominantly used to investigate residues asso-ciated with metalworking, to elucidate the uses of particular tools,or to yield insights into the technology used at a specific workshop(e.g. Rehren, 2003; Je�zek, 2013).

Few studies have examined residues as a means of functionallylinking different artifacts together to reconstruct manufacturingsequences and complete toolkits (Ache et al., 2012; Bertemes et al.,2000; Bertemes and Heyd, 2002). Yet, understanding how artifactsfit together to form discrete and cohesive toolkits designed toperform specific tasks is crucial to building technological profiles ofarchaeological sites. Archaeological sites are likely to contain themajority of tools used for local manufacturing of objects, at least ifthe preservation is good (Bortenschlager and Oeggl, 2000). Shell

* Corresponding author. Tel.: þ1 707 439 1501.E-mail address: smith.kevin597@gmail.com (K.N. Smith).

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Journal of Archaeological Science 54 (2015) 287e293

middens and calcareous soils in general tend to provide goodpreservation for bone and shell artifacts, making them ideal set-tings to examine such artifacts, investigate the organization anddevelopment of technology, and make behavioral inferences aboutpast human activities based on their material remains. It is with thisin mind that the following paper focuses on using transfer residueson sandstone abraders as a means to test hypotheses about theorganization of shellfish hook production at a 15th to 16th centuryvillage site on the California Channel Islands.

2. Sandstone saws

Recent excavations of the Tule Creek site (CAeSNIe25) on SanNicolas Island, California, yielded abundant cortical flake abradersof local indurated sandstone. These tools were originally referred toas “sandstone saws” by Malcom J. Rogers (1930) who describedthem as numerous in his initial surveys and excavations at the site(Fig. 1). Kendig et al. (2010) used replicative studies, use-wearanalysis, and examination of the spatial distributions of sand-stone saws relative to other artifacts. A statistical correlation be-tween sandstone saws and single piece shell fishhooks implied thatsandstone saws were used to manufacture and refine shell fish-hooks at this site (Fig. 2). The study tested replicated saws and theireffectiveness, use wear, and residue placement patterns when setto a variety of tasks. The results showed that the replicated speci-mens were extremely effective during key stages of shell fishhookmanufacture and that use-wear and residue placement patternswere most representative of archaeological specimens when thesaws were set to this task (Kendig et al., 2010). Patterns of whiteresidue formed along the distal cutting edge of the tools duringthese stages of shell fishhook production and became embedded inthe exterior of the tool; a pattern well reflected in the archaeo-logical assemblage (Kendig et al., 2010: 203e205). These dataprovided a foundation for the current study regarding the use ofsandstone saws in shell fishhook production on San Nicolas Island.

3. San Nicolas Island

The most isolated of the Southern California Channel Islands,San Nicolas Island lies 98 km (68 mi.) from the nearest point on the

mainland at the Palos Verdes peninsula (Kendig et al., 2010: 194)(Fig. 3). Geologically, uplifted sedimentary Eocene deposits of silt-stones, conglomerates, and sandstonesmake up themajority of thislandmass (Burnham et al., 1963; Schoenherr et al., 1999; Vedderand Norris, 1963). The semi-arid island is somewhat sparse interrestrial resources and contains only a few perennial fresh watersprings, low growing shrubs, and six terrestrial animals includingthe white footed deer mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus), side-blotchlizard (Uta stansburiana), island night lizard (Xantusia riversiana),southern alligator lizard (Elgaria multicarinata), island fox (Urocyonlittoralis), and land snail (Micrarionta sp.) (Schoenherr et al., 1999).However, San Nicolas Island is surrounded by the most extensivekelp beds of any of the California Channel Islands and containedwithin this unique ecosystem thrives an abundance of marine life(Browne, 1994; Engle, 1994).

The earliest occupation on San Nicolas Island dates to the Ter-minal Pleistocene/Early Holocene as supported by the presence oflithic crescents, a flaked stone technology associated with thisperiod (Davis et al., 2010). However the oldest radiocarbon datesassociated with archaeological deposits date to around 6000 cal BP(Davis et al., 2010). Middle Holocene (6500e3500 YBP) occupationis well reflected within several extensive sites on the northwestcoast of the island (Rick et al., 2005; Vellanoweth and Erlandson,1999). The Late Holocene (3500 cal BP-European contact) reflectssignificant shifts in regional social complexity (Arnold, 2001;Gamble, 2008; Kennett, 2005), and on San Nicolas Island thisperiod is characterized by the formation of large village sites,communal cemeteries, and increased evidence of trade (Martz,1994: 18, 2005). This rising complexity may have been influencedby the advent of the single pieced shell fishhook, roughly2500 cal BP (Rick et al., 2002), as well as the prevalent use of theseaworthy sewn plank canoe (Arnold, 2001; Gamble, 2002;Kennett, 2005: 215) in addition to many advanced fishing tech-nologies still in use (Erlandson and Braje, 2008).Fig. 1. Morphological variation of sandstone saws from CAeSNIe25. Distinct residue

placement pattern indicated with white circle (adapted from Kendig et al., 2010).

Fig. 2. Anatomy of a single piece shell fishhook from the Tule Creek Site (adapted fromCannon, 2006).

K.N. Smith et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 54 (2015) 287e293288

The Spanish first arrived in southern California by 1542 (Kelsey,1986: 157e159; Wagner 1929: 20, 55). Soon after, Russians andAleuts from Fort Ross set up seasonal camps on the Channel Islandsto hunt sea otters (Enhydralutris) for their pelts (Morris et al., inpress; Schwartz, 1994). By AD 1835 the last remaining Nicole~noswere removed from the island on orders from the mainland. The“lone woman,” baptized Juana Maria at her death, resisted leaving,and remained on the island for the next eighteen years beforeaccompanying George Nidever and his crew to Santa Barbara,California, in AD 1853 (Nidever, 1878).

The Tule Creek Village Site (CAeSNIe25) is located near thenorthernmost point of San Nicolas Island adjacent to the ThousandSprings area. The site overlooks Corral Harbor, one of the few safecanoe anchorages on the island. Over 75 radiocarbon dates indicatetwo discrete occupational time periods for the site, the lower datedto between 4800 and 3400 cal BP and the upper between 600 and350 cal BP (Kendig et al., 2012). CAeSNIe25 exhibits evidence forboth domestic and ceremonial activities in a broad array of lithicreduction concentrations, fish and shellfish processing areas, dogburials (Bartelle et al., 2010; Vellanoweth et al., 2008), artifactcaches, a balancing stone feature (Knierim et al., 2013), hearthalignments, and pit features that may be associated with feastingevents (Marty, 2008).

4. Channel island shell artifact production

Evidence for a continuous shell artifact tradition spanning atleast the last 10,000 years is well supported by the archaeologicalrecord of the California Channel Islands (Arnold, 2001; Bennyhoffand Hughes, 1987; Gamble, 2008; Gifford and Orr, 2010(1940,1947); Kennett, 2005; King, 1990; Milliken and Schwitalla,2012; Nigra and Arnold, 2013; Strudwick, 1986). Beginning in theearly Holocene, intentionally modified shell artifacts first appear inthe form of simple spire lopped beads (Erlandson et al., 2005;Vellanoweth et al., 2003). By the middle Holocene artifacts suchas abalone shell dishes, or bowls, attest to the utilitarian function ofsome shell items (Reinman and Townsend, 1960). Also during thistime, Olivella Grooved Rectangle (OGR) beads first appear; an

ornament form with a broad regional distribution likely linked toearly extensive trade routes (Vellanoweth, 1995, 2001). The lateHolocene marked a significant advance in the use of marine shell asmaterial for utilitarian items and personal adornments (Smith,2013; Strudwick, 1986; King, 1990; Rick, 2004; Villalobos, 2013).

Shell artifacts from San Nicolas Island figure prominently in thedevelopment of regional artifact classifications and chronologies.For instance, Cannon 2006:181 indicates that themajority (~56%) ofartifacts contained in Hudson and Blackburn's (1982, 1983, 1985,1986, 1987) five volume set, The Material Culture of the Chumash

Interaction Sphere, originated from San Nicolas Island, suggestingthat the Nicole~nos produced many of the artifacts exchangedthroughout California and played an integral role in regional tradenetworks. The present study seeks to understand the organizationof shellfish hook production on San Nicolas Island by connectingstone and shell artifacts through residue analysis.

5. Materials and methods

Archaeological materials analyzed from CAeSNIe25 wereexcavated between 2003 and 2009 by archaeological field schoolsassociated with Humboldt State University and California StateUniversity, Los Angeles. A total of 126 sandstone saws wereunearthed from the upper (younger) component of the site. Visualinspection at low power magnification (10� and 40�) identifiedwhite residue on 36 (29%) of these saws. Material analysis wascarried out on small samples scraped off of two saws, #3599 and#3607, recovered from Units 8 and 7z, East Locus, and from amodern red abalone shell. To facilitate the XRD analysis, somescrapings were ground to a fine powder using a mortar and pestle.The crystalline phases in the ground scrapings were identified withXRD, using an X'Pert-PRO unit from PANalytical B.V., TheNetherlands. XRD spectra were collected for 1½ hours per sample,with the machine operating at 40 mA/45 kV. The resulting spectrawere processed and analyzed using the X'Pert Data Viewer soft-ware from PANalytical. The scrapings were then analyzed in a JSM-7000F (JEOL Ltd., Japan) scanning electron microscope (SEM)equipped for EDS analysis to characterize their morphology and

Fig. 3. The southern California Bight showing the location of CAeSNIe25 (adapted from Kendig et al., 2010).

K.N. Smith et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 54 (2015) 287e293 289

elemental composition. The scrapings were not given a coating;instead, images were recorded in back-scatter mode at low accel-eration voltage (5e10 kV) to avoid charge build-up.

6. Results

SEM images of sample scrapings are shown in Figs. 4 and 5. X-ray diffraction spectra of the analyzed samples are shown inFigs. 6e10. For the scrapings from stone tool #3607, SEM-EDSanalysis identified the elements C, Ca, Si, Na, and Al in the stonesample. These results are consistent with the XRD analysis, whichidentified the mineral phases calcite (CaCO3), albite (NaAlSi3O8),and possibly quartz (SiO2) (Fig. 6). This mineral composition con-firms previous identification of the stone tool material as induratedsandstone, which mainly consists of quartz and feldspars such asalbite. The presence of calcite in the sandstone is not surprising,since sandstone often is cemented together with small amounts ofcalcite located in the pore spaces between the sand grains.

The white scrapings from stone tool #3607 were revealed byXRD analysis to contain two different phases of calcium carbonate,namely calcite and aragonite (ICDD reference codes 4-12-0489 and1-75-9987) (Fig. 7) (also see Supplemental Table 1). The findingswere confirmed by SEM analysis, which revealed that the scrapingsmostly consisted of particles with the chemical composition ofcalcium carbonate (i.e. Ca 20%, C 20%, and O 60%), although theparticles displayed at least two different morphologies (Figs. 4c and5). In addition, occasional sand particles were also present in thescrapings.

For the white residue on stone tool #3599, XRD analysis iden-tified calcite and albite in the scrapings (Fig. 8). The albite XRDpeaks are very distinct, and most likely originate from a single largealbite crystal in the scrapings. SEM analysis of the scrapings showednumerous particles of pure calcium carbonate, which appear to

form the bulk of the white residue (Fig. 4a). These particles explainthe XRD calcite signals. These large homogenous calcite particlesare of a different nature than the calcite-cement in the sandstone,indicating a different origin.

XRD analysis of scrapings from a modern red abalone shellrevealed that the innermost mother-of-pearl layer consistedmostlyof aragonite, with some additional calcite, while the outer red layerconsisted mostly of calcite, with some additional aragonite(Supplemental Figs. 9e10). For both the inner and outer shell layer,SEM analysis indicated the presence of calcium carbonate particleswith various morphologies. In particular, the aragonite plates

Fig. 4. SEM images of calcium carbonate particles of different origins: a) particles of pure calcite from the white residue on tool #3599; b) close-up image of calcite particles fromthe outer epidermis layer of a modern red abalone shell (Haliotis rufescens)[Note the layering resulting from the organic origin]; c) close-up image of fractured aragonite plates fromthe white residue on stone tool #3607; d) close-up image of scrapings from the inner mother-of-pearl (nacre) layer of a modern red abalone shell. Aragonite plates are clearlydistinguishable e note the similar morphology to the plates in Fig. 4c.

Fig. 5. SEM image (950�) showing an abundance of aragonite plates in scrapings fromthe white residue on stone tool #3607.

K.N. Smith et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 54 (2015) 287e293290

dominating the inner shell layer had a very similar morphology tothe calcium carbonate plates dominating the white residue onstone tool #3607 (Fig. 5).

Overall, the results show that the white residues on the stonetools consist of calcium carbonate in the form of aragonite andcalcite. This aragonite and calcite is different from the minerals inthe sandstone from which the tools are made. The aragonite andcalcite is, however, virtually identical to the biogenic aragonite andcalcite found in marine shells from the California coast. Hence, itappears safe to conclude that the white residues are a result of thetools being used to work marine shell, likely red abalone, whichwas relatively abundant in the region and used in the production ofnumerous utilitarian and ornamental objects (Hudson andBlackburn, 1985, 1987; Gifford and Orr, 2010 [1940,1947]).

7. Discussion

Our analytical results confirm an earlier study by Kendig et al.(2010) suggesting that sandstone saws were used as abraders tomanufacture shell fishhooks on San Nicolas Island. The SEM resultsin particular suggest an interesting pattern regarding the specificmanner inwhich sandstone abraders were used to make fishhooks.The SEM results on the residue appear to suggest that the saws wetested were used mostly on the nacreous portion of the shell,matching key stages of our replicative studies (Kendig et al., 2010).Kendig et al. (2010), for example, determined that saws were usedin shell fishhookmanufacturing to free the point from the shank; toestablish a knob and groove for line attachment; and, to smoothand sharpen the point to a fine polish. These stages focus onsandstone saw use in the final stages of hook production after theepidermal (calcite-containing) layer of the shell has been removed.

Confirming the use of sandstone saws in the production of shellfishhooks provides new insights regarding a technological inno-vation that transformed local economies. The development of shellfishhook technology in coastal and insular southern Californiasparked the advent of a fish based subsistence economy also sup-ported by the wood plank canoe (Rick et al., 2002: 935) thatcontributed to marked shifts in regional sociopolitical complexity(Arnold, 2001; Gamble, 2008; McKenzie, 2007: 87). For example,shell fishhooks allowed anglers to more efficiently exploit rockyreefs and kelp bed habitats (Strudwick, 1986: 127); to capture fishthrough mouth rather than gut hooking (Anell, 1955: 229;Kennedy, 1931: 27e28; McKenzie, 2007: 60; Robinson, 1942:63e64; Tartaglia, 1978: 95); to secure the fish more effectively dueto hook morphology (Anell, 1955: 116; Nordhoff, 1930: 155;Tartaglia, 1978: 94); to catch fish passively rather than throughactively setting the hook (Nordhoff, 1930: 156); and to decreaseaccidental snagging and the loss of fishing equipment (Robinson,1942: 64). All of these advancements improved fishing efficiencyand provided for greater catches, leading to the potential forincreased surplus and storage d ingredients necessary for thedevelopment of complex societies (McKenzie, 2007: 87).

8. Conclusion

Overall, the present results confirm initial studies that usedreplicative, use-wear, and statistical analysis to conclude that

Fig. 6. X-ray diffractogram for the bulk material of artifact #3607 (“stone saw”), wherethe peak patterns match reference data for the mineral phases calcite (CaCO3; bluereference lines), albite (NaAlSi3O8; green reference lines), and quartz (SiO2; redreference lines). (For interpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, thereader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 7. X-ray diffractogram for scrapings of white residue from object #3607 (“stonesaw”). The peak patterns match reference data for the mineral phases calcite (CaCO3;blue reference lines) and aragonite (CaCO3; green reference lines). See SupplementaryTable S1 for more information about this diffractogram and its interpretation. (Forinterpretation of the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred tothe web version of this article.)

Fig. 8. X-ray diffractogram for scrapings of white residue from object #3599 (“stonesaw”). The peak patterns match reference data for the mineral phases calcite (CaCO3;blue reference lines) and albite (NaAlSi3O8; green reference lines). (For interpretationof the references to color in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web versionof this article.)

K.N. Smith et al. / Journal of Archaeological Science 54 (2015) 287e293 291

sandstone saws were used to manufacture circular shell fishhookson San Nicolas Island at CAeSNIe25 (Kendig et al., 2010). Our re-sults provide further confirmation on the functional linkage be-tween abalone shell and sandstone artifacts and should proveuseful to other archaeologists and scientists examining the re-lationships between disparate tool types and their roles in ancientsocieties. The current paper also demonstrates how XRD combinedwith SEM-EDS can be used to characterize minute amounts ofmaterial, such as biominerals, using minimal samples that do notcompromise the integrity of the archaeological object harboringthe residue.

Replicative and use-wear analysis allowed Kendig et al. (2010) totest hypotheses pertaining to tool use linked to fishhook produc-tion. The conventional archaeological approaches yielded insightsinto spatial and stratigraphic concentrations, statistical correlationsand historical context. Through XRD and SEM analysis, residuecomposition was directly linked to specific layers of marine shell.By combining archaeological and analytical approaches in anintegrative methodology we were able to conduct a more holisticexamination of the role of this tool in key stages of shell fishhookproduction within an archaeological context.

Acknowledgments

We thank Steven J. Schwartz, Senior Archaeologist, and LisaThomas-Barnett of the NAVAIR Range Sustainability Office, SanNicolas Island, California, for financial and logistical support. Wealso thank California State University, Los Angeles (CSULA) andHumboldt State University (HSU) for sponsoring the archaeologicalfield schools that recovered the sandstone saws described in thispaper. Kjell Jansson and Lars Gӧthe at Stockholm University helpedwith the XRD and SEM analysis.

Appendix A. Supplementary data

Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jas.2014.11.025.

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