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Psychosocial Development in Middle Childhood

Chapter 10

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Did You Know…

The number of father-only families in the US has quadrupled since 1970?

Children in single-parent households do better on achievement tests in countries with supportive family policies?

Children reared by gay or lesbian parents have been found to be as psychologically healthy as children reared by heterosexual parents?

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There are few significant differences in adjustment between adopted and nonadopted children?

Research supports a cause-and-effect relationship between viewing media violence and aggressive behavior?

Patterns of bullying and victimization may become established as early as kindergarten?

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The Developing Self

The cognitive growth that takes place during middle childhood enables children to develop more complex concepts of themselves and to gain in emotional understanding.

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Neo-Piagetian: Representational Systems

Representational Systems: Broad, inclusive self-concepts that integrate different aspects of the self– ‘I am really smart in math, but I’m having

troubles in English.’

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Representational Systems

Example:– “At school I’m feeling pretty smart in certain

subjects, Language Arts and Social Studies.” says 8 year old Lisa. “I got A’s in these subjects on my last report card and was really proud of myself. But I’m feeling really dumb in Math and Science, particularly when I see how well the other kids are doing…I still like myself as a person, because Math and Science are just not that important to me. How I look and how popular I am are more important.”

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Self-Esteem

Erikson’s crisis of industry v. inferiority The virtue of ‘competence’

– Successful resolution of crisis– Seeing the self as able to master skills and

complete tasks

Includes social support from family and friends

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Emotional Growth & Prosocial Behavior

By age 7 or 8, children are aware of feeling shame, guilt and pride.

They are aware of their culture’s rules for expressing emotion.

Emotional self-regulation involves voluntary control over emotions, attention, and behavior.

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Emotional Growth & Prosocial Behavior

Children learn what makes them angry, fearful, sad, etc and how other people act towards these emotions. This allows them to learn to behave accordingly.

When parents respond with disapproval or punishment anger and fear may become more intense or children may become anxious over these emotions.

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Family Atmosphere

Children exposed to parental discord had high levels ofo Internalizing behaviors: anxiety,

fearfulness and depressiono Externalizing behaviors: aggressiveness,

fighting, disobedience and hostility

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Parenting Issues in Middle Childhood

Coregulation: develops during middle childhood– Parent and child share power– Parent: General supervision– Child: Self-regulation

Discipline– Inductive techniques – point out actions to child– ‘Hitting Jermaine hurts him and makes him feel

bad.’© 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

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Working Mothers

In 2005, 70% of U.S. mothers with children under 18 were in the workforce.

The more satisfied a mother is with her employment, the more effective she is as a parent.

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Effects of Working Mothers

Impact of mother’s work depends on: Whether she works part- or full-time Why she is working Partner support SES Type of care before and after school

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Working Mothers

9% of children and 23% of early adolescents are reported to be in self-care, regularly caring for themselves at home without adult supervision.

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Poverty and Parenting

Approximately 18 percent of all U.S. children under age 18 live in poverty.

Poor children are more likely to:– Have emotional and behavioral problems– Suffer cognitively and scholastically

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Adjusting to Divorce

Divorce causes stress for all family members. First, there is the stress of conflict. Then, the stress

of one parent departing (usually the father). Adjustment of children depends upon:

– The level of parental conflict before the divorce– Child’s age or maturity

Younger children experience more anxiety but adapt faster

– Gender and temperament Boys have a harder time adjusting

– Psychosocial development before divorce

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Custody and Visitation Issues

In most divorce cases, mother gets custody. Children do better if the parent who does not get custody

remains involved. Many children of divorce state that losing contact with the

father is one of the most painful aspects of divorce Joint custody

� Custody shared by both parents

� Beneficial, if parents can cooperate Joint legal custody

Parents share the rights to make decisions about child’s welfare� Joint physical custody

� Child lives part-time with each parent

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Long-term Effects of Divorce

Most children adjust reasonably well. However, divorce increases risk of:

– Antisocial behavior– Difficulties with authority figures– Dropping out of school– Emotional or psychological problems (anxiety)

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One-Parent Families

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One-Parent Families

Result from divorce, separation, unwed parenthood, or death.

Single-parent families in the US have more than doubled since 1970.

5% of single-parent families are headed by a father

Single parents often lack resources.

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Cohabiting Families

Similar to two-parent, but tend to be more disadvantagedo Less incomeo Less educationo More mental health problems

More likely to break up than married families

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Stepfamilies

Adjustment may be stressful. May include relatives of up to 4 adults Child’s loyalty to an absent parent may

interfere with bonding to stepparent. Findings on the impact of

remarriage on children are mixed.

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Gay or Lesbian Families

An estimated 9 million children have at least one homosexual parent.

Research shows NO special concerns in terms of children’s physical, cognitive or emotional development.

Children of homosexuals are no more likely to be homosexual than children of heterosexuals.

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Adoptive Families

Adoption is found in all cultures throughout history

60 percent of adoptions are by stepparents or relatives, usually grandparents.

Increase in ‘open adoptions’– Parties share information or have direct contact

U.S. adoptions of foreign-born children quadrupled from 1978 to 2001.

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Special Challenges of Adoptive Families

Integrating child into the familyDecisions about contacting biological

parentsForeign adoptions do not appear to

entail any more problems than domestic adoptions

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Sibling Relationships

Roles and relationships are determined by: Spacing Birth order Gender Culture

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Effects of Peer Relationships

Positive– Develop sociability and intimacy skills– Learn leadership and communication skills– Gain a sense of belonging

Negative– Cliques– Reinforce prejudice– Foster anti-social tendencies – pressure to

conform

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Stages of Friendship

Stage Description

Momentary Friendship

Egocentric – ‘She lives on my street’

One-way Assistance

Unilateral – A ‘good friend’ does what you want.

Two-way Reciprocal – Give and take relationship

Intimate Mutual – Friendship has life of own

Interdependent A good friendship takes commitment

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What Do You Feel Causes Certain Children to be Unpopular?

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Reasons Children May be Unpopular

AggressiveHyperactive Inattentive or withdrawn Insensitive to other children’s feelingsDo not adapt well to new situations

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Types of Aggression

Instrumental or Proactive Aggression– View coercion as an effective meansto get their way

Hostile Aggression– Aim is to hurt the victim– Often takes relational (social), rather than overt (physical), form– Aggressors may have ‘hostile attribution bias’

See others as trying to hurt them© 2009 by the McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc

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Media and Aggression

6 out of 10 TV shows portray violence.– Usually glamorized, trivialized or glorified

Most studies support a causal relationship between media violence and aggressive behavior.

Virtual violence (video games) may have a stronger effect than passive media (TV).

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Bullies and Victims

Bullying - Aggression deliberately directed against a particular target

Victims are usually:–Weak–Vulnerable–Defenseless

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Patterns of Bullying

Become established as early as kindergarten

Bullying increases during middle school and then declines

Temporary rise as social networks form– Especially with middle-school boys

Boys tend to use overt aggression Girls tend to use relational aggression

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How Can We Prevent Bullying?

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Conduct Disruptive Disorders

Oppositional defiant disorder (ODD)– A pattern of defiance, disobedience, and hostility towards authority figures

lasting at least 6 months and going beyond the bounds of normal childhood behavior

– Patterns persist past age 8

Conduct disorder (CD)– A persistent repetitive pattern of aggressive antisocial acts, such as truancy,

setting fires, habitual lying, fighting bullying, theft, vandalism, assaults, alcohol and drug use

– Some 11 to 13 year olds progress from CD to criminal violence and by age 17 are serious offenders

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Anxiety or Mood Disorders

School phobia/social phobiaSeparation anxiety disorderGeneralized anxiety disorderObsessive compulsive disorderChildhood depression

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Treatment Techniques

Individual psychotherapyFamily therapyBehavior therapy or modificationArt therapyPlay therapy

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Drug Therapy

AntidepressantsStimulantsTranquilizersAntipsychotic medications

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Stresses of Modern Life

Today’s child is the ‘hurried child’ Exposed to adult problems, like violence

on TV and in real life Children are expected to:

– Succeed in school– Compete in sports– Meet parents’ emotional needs

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The Resilient Child

Children who maintain composure under challenge or threat

Children who ‘bounce back’ from trauma Protective Factors:

� Good family relationships

� Good cognitive functioning

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Traits of Resilient Children

Personality and Temperament Reduced Risk Factors

– Low parental discord– No criminal father – No foster care

Compensating Experiences– Supportive school environment– Successful experiences in school or social life

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