Fundamental Object- Control Skills of Childhood Chapter 14 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2012 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved

Fundamental Object-Control Skills of

Childhood

Chapter 14

McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2012 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved.

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When the child is able to ambulate freely, the hands

are free to use in a new fundamental skill ~

object-control

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Overarm ThrowingOne of the most complex fundamental movementsCan be divided into 3 phases

Preparatory phaseAll movements directed away from the intended line of projection

Execution phaseAll movements performed in the direction of the throw

Follow-throughAll movements following the release of the projectile

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Developmental Stages of Throwing

M. Wild (1938)Four developmental stages of throwing

See Table 14-1

TrendsMovement progresses from an anterior-posterior plane to a horizontal planeThe base of support changes from a stationary to a shifting position

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Langendorfer (1980)

Notice the lack of a preparatory backswing in Step 1

In Step 2, note howthe ball is brought upbeside the head withupward humerus flexionand exaggerated elbowflexion

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Option 1 is a circularoverhead preparatorymovementwith elbow extended

Option 2 is a preparatoryphase using a lateral swing backward

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Option 3 uses asimple vertical lift of the throwing arm

By the second grade, boys predominantlyuse Step 4

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Roberton (1978) presents longitudinal evidence for developmental stages within the humerus, forearm, and trunk components for the overarm throw“Development within component parts may proceed at different rates in the same individual or at different rates in different individuals.”

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Seefeldt, Reuschlein, and Vogel (1972)Note large gender differences in throwing developmentNote the age at which 60% of boys exhibit a Stage 5 throwing patternNote the lag in development for girls

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Throwing motion is posterior-anterior in directionFeet do not moveLittle trunk rotation

Stage 1

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More rotation of the bodyPerformer may step forwardArm brought forward in transverse plane

Stage 2

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Developmental Stages of ThrowingNote the ipsilateral arm-leg actionBall is placed into throwing position above the shoulder by a vertical and posterior motion of the arm at the time that the ipsilateral leg is moving forward

Stage 3

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Movement is contralateralLittle or no rotation of the hips and spine during wind-upStride forward provides a wide base of support

Stage 4

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Mature movement patternAge at which 60% of boys and girls are able to perform at a specific developmental level

Stage 5

Age at which 60% of boys and girls are able to perform at a specific level

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Developmental Performance Trends for Overarm Throwing

Study techniques for performanceThrow for distanceThrow for accuracyMeasurement of throwing velocity

Annual improvement regardless of study techniqueBoys and men outperform girls and women at all ages

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Factors that Influence Overarm Throwing Performance

InstructionKnowledgeInstructional cuesBall sizeAngle of ball release

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InstructionDoes instruction facilitate development or is improvement due to the year-to-year improvement of the fundamental skill?

Instruction significantly affects changes in throwing technique, but not greater horizontal ball velocities

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InstructionAn “increased range of motion instruction” program can increase the stride length component of the overarm throwA training program designed to improve throwing pattern can be effective in improving girls’ foot action and pelvic-spine rotation, but not arm action, throwing distance, or ball velocity

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KnowledgeAwkward throwers possess significantly less declarative knowledge than more talented throwersKnowledge of throwing influences performance

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Instructional cuesIdentification of critical cues facilitates throwing performance

Critical cues“Take a long step toward the target with the opposite foot of your throwing arm”“Take your arm straight down, then stretch it way back to make an ‘L’ with the arm”“Watch the target and release the ball when you see your fingers”

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Ball sizeWhen ball diameter is scaled up, a transitional point is reached where the performer resorts to a less mature throwing pattern in the backswing and forearm componentsAs diameter increases, there is a transition from one-handed grasping to two-handed graspingBall size and hand width are important in throwing performance

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Angle of ball releaseIn those using an “arm-dominated” throwing pattern, the ball is released too early resulting in an upward trajectory (490)

May be linked to poor grasp, ball weight, and ball size

A mature throwing pattern angle of release is 150

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Accounting for Gender Differences in Overarm Throwing

The greatest gender differences for all fundamental skills is found with throwingSuccess in distance throwing of boys is associated with

HeredityArm muscle mass

Sociocultural factorsMale adult in the home

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Success in distance throwing for girls is associated with

Greater weight, more body fat, large joint diameter, and greater arm and leg mass compared to smaller and weaker female counterparts

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The best predictors of throwing development in girls are

Participation in sportPresence of an older brother in the household

The best predictors of throwing development in boys are

Father’s sport involvementFather-son skill play

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Catching The action of bringing an airborne object under control by using the hands and arms

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Developmental Aspects: Two-Handed Catching

First attempt to stop a rolling object is to sit on floor with legs spread apart

Legs trap ballHands trap ball

First attempt at an airborne object is passiveTosser throws ball so the child can use the outstretched arms and body to catch

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2-year-old 5-year-old 15-year-old

Focuses on the tosser, not the ballMaintains a static positionReacts too late

Can anticipate some of the ball’s changing flight patternCan focus on thrower, ball, and own hands Movements are correct, but are carried out in slow motion

Can predict the ball’s flightCarries out preparatory sequences to catch the ballMovements are smooth

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This 6-year-old child is showing fear in reaction to a thrown ballSeefeldt speculates that fear of a projectile is learned from earlier failures

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Developmental Sequences for Two-Handed Catching

Arms are directly in front with elbows extended; palms facing upward and inwardArms and hands attempt to secure the ball by holding it against the chest

Stage 1

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Elbows are slightly flexedArms encircle the ball against the chestArm action initiated before ball contact

Stage 2

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Substage 1: child uses chest as first contact pointSubstage 2: child attempts to catch ball with hands

Stage 3

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Child prepares to receive the ball by flexing the elbows and presenting the arms ahead of the frontal planeBall is caught with the hands alone

Stage 4

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Many children encounter difficulty when they are required to move toward the object

Stage 5


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Developmental Aspects: One-Handed Catching

Little scientific evidence exists regarding a child’s ability to catch with one hand

Boys typically outperform girlsBall location is a factor

Young children can orient hands in all directions for a catch, but lack experience in finger closure

One-handed catching is less successful than two-handed

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Constraints on the Development of Catching

Ball sizeBall and background colorBall velocityTrajectory angelVision and viewing timeInstructionKnowledge and experienceCatching on the runCatching with a glove

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Ball sizeProduct oriented evaluation: Larger balls improve young children’s catching performanceProcess oriented evaluation: Smaller balls are more conducive to successful catching (Isaacs, 1980)

More mature catch

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Rating Maturation Level

0 Initial body contact; subject makes no attempt to catch ball

1 Arm and/or body contact, miss: Initial attempt to contact is made on the arms and/or body, and the ball is missed

2 Arm and/or body contact, save: Initial contact is on the arms and/or body, and the ball is retained

3 Hand contact, miss: Initial contact is made by the hands, but the ball is then dropped immediately or dropped following arm or body contact

4 Hand contact, assisted catch: Initial contact is made by the hands. The ball is juggled but retained by using arms and/or body for assistance

5 Hand contact, clean catch: The ball is contacted and retained by the hands only. The ball may be brought into the body on the follow-through after control is gained by the hands

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Ball and background colorBlue and yellow balls are caught successfully more often then white ballsBlue balls against white background elicit the highest successFor both boys and girls, using preferred color of ball results in greater catching success

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Ball velocityImportant in predicting direction of projectileCatching performance decreases as ball velocity increases (25 ft/s to 33 ft/s)

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Trajectory angleAngle of projection does not significantly affect a child's catching abilityOn average, 440 projection angle elicits success in catchingUnskilled children are more successful when ball is projected at 340 angle

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Vision and viewing timeA slowly moving ball through space is preferred when working with inexperienced catchers

Beach ballWhiffle ballSponge ball

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InstructionOnly one study has examined catching instruction on one-handed catching8-year-old child trained over 7 days

Catching ability improved to the level of a child 2 years older

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Knowledge and experienceKnowledge of catching can influence performanceProcedural knowledge is higher in nondisabled children; higher in ambulatory disabled vs. nonambulatory disabled peersDeclarative knowledge does not differ significantly among the various groups

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Knowledge and experience“…declarative and procedural knowledge do not develop at the same rate and that catching experience may foster the acquisition of procedural knowledge, even though a deficit in declarative knowledge may be evident.”

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Catching on the runSince it is easier to catch a ball directed toward the child, teachers/coaches should use caution when paring up inexperienced and experienced catchers

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Catching with a gloveA glove can alter the nature of errors typically observed in bare-handed catchingGlove catching is easier as ball moves toward a larger target and is caught over a larger surface areaHand strength is important

To squeeze glove

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Striking A fundamental movement in which a designated body part or some implement is used to project an object

Bare hand against volleyballBaseball ballTennis racquet

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Developmental Aspects of One- and Two-Handed Striking

The initial patterns in striking are similar to those observed in throwingForward step is likely to be with homolateral legLater, child will step forward with contralateral leg

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Motion is posterior-anterior in directionElbows are fully flexedFeet remain stationary

Stage 1

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Feet are stationary or right or left foot may receive the weightUnitary rotation of hip and trunkBat moves in transverse plane

Stage 2

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Shift of weight to the front-supporting foot in an ipsilateral patternTrunk rotation-derotation decreasedBat is swung in an oblique-vertical plane

Stage 3

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Developmental Aspects of One -and Two-Handed Striking

Mature striking pattern

Stage 4


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Stationary Ball BouncingAt advanced levels, a person bounces or dribbles a ball using the hand to push the ball repeatedly downwardInexperienced performers use one or two hands to strike the ballStriking is one of the developmental stages of dribbling

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Stationary Ball BouncingThe inexperienced dribbler slaps at the ball

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Stationary Ball BouncingThe mature dribbler fully extends the armRetracts the arm when contact is madeHand maintains contact with the ball

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Kicking Another form of strikingThe foot is used to give impetus to the ballPlace kicking involves kicking a ball from the ground or a tee

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KickingPerformer is usually near the ballThigh of kicking leg moves forwardKnee extension occurs after contact

Stage 1

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KickingHyperextension at hip and flexion at kneeKicking leg moves forward with knee flexedArm-leg opposition occurs during kickForce of kick usually not sufficient to move the body forward

Stage 2

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KickingOne or more steps taken on approachKicking foot stays nears surface as it approaches ballKnee begins to extend prior to contactArm-leg opposition

Stage 3

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KickingMature kicking pattern

Stage 4


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PuntingPunting involves striking an airborne ball with the foot

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PuntingBall may be held in both hands as the punting foot lifts forward and upward to push the ballBall may be tossed up; ball may be bouncedFlexion at the hip and knee from stationary start

Stage 1

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PuntingStationary startBall held in both hands and dropped or tossed forwardNonsupport leg is flexedKicking force is more upward

Stage 2

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PuntingForward motion Ball released forward and downward directionKnee flexed at 900

Follow-through will carry punter forward

Stage 3

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PuntingRapid approach with culminating leapBall contacted at or below knee heightMomentum of swinging leg carries the punter off the ground

Stage 4

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Documents

Fundamental Object- Control Skills of Childhood Chapter 14 McGraw-Hill/Irwin © 2012 McGraw-Hill Companies. All Rights Reserved