1 Lecture 1. Introduction to Agricultural Pollution Control Including particular reference to Eastern and Central Europe Prepared by Assoc. Prof. Philip

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Lecture 1. Introduction to Lecture 1. Introduction to AAgricultural gricultural PPollution ollution CControlontrol

Including particular reference to Including particular reference to Eastern and Central EuropeEastern and Central Europe

Prepared by Assoc. Prof. Philip Chiverton, SLUPrepared by Assoc. Prof. Philip Chiverton, SLU

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PollutionPollution : :

‘‘thethe introduction by man, directly or indirectly, introduction by man, directly or indirectly, of substances or energy into the environment, of substances or energy into the environment, which are liable to create hazards to human health,which are liable to create hazards to human health,to harm living resources and marine ecosystems’to harm living resources and marine ecosystems’

Agricultural pollutionAgricultural pollution is, thus, the direct or indirect is, thus, the direct or indirect introduction of substances – particularlyintroduction of substances – particularly excessive excessive nutrientsnutrients (such as (such as nitrates (N)nitrates (N) and and phosphorous phosphorous (P)(P) ) ) - or energy into the environment as a result of - or energy into the environment as a result of mans agricultural activities.mans agricultural activities.

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How can How can Agricultural PollutionAgricultural Pollution harm our environment? harm our environment?

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Eutrophic Eutrophic meansmeans nutrient-rich nutrient-rich, and eutrophication literally , and eutrophication literally means enrichment with nutrients, although nowadays the termmeans enrichment with nutrients, although nowadays the termis more often used in a negative sense to mean is more often used in a negative sense to mean over-enrichment.over-enrichment.

Nutrients - especiallyNutrients - especially nitrogennitrogen and and phosphorusphosphorus - are vital for marine life. But the presence of excessive - are vital for marine life. But the presence of excessive nutrients can seriously disturb the functioning of marine nutrients can seriously disturb the functioning of marine ecosystems. ecosystems.

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Excessive nutrient inputs into a water body induce biological, Excessive nutrient inputs into a water body induce biological, chemical and physical changes in aquatic plant and animalchemical and physical changes in aquatic plant and animalcommunities, often leading to oxygen depletion, especially communities, often leading to oxygen depletion, especially in deeper waters.in deeper waters.

Greenish, murky water is typically the first sign ofGreenish, murky water is typically the first sign of eutrophicationeutrophication as microscopic plants and algae grow profusely, consuming the as microscopic plants and algae grow profusely, consuming the surplus nutrients. But algae are short-lived, and when they diesurplus nutrients. But algae are short-lived, and when they diethey sink to the bottom of the sea, where their decompositionthey sink to the bottom of the sea, where their decompositionuses up oxygen. uses up oxygen.

The worst affected areas can become completelyThe worst affected areas can become completely anoxicanoxic. In the. In theabsence of oxygen, decomposition can release toxicabsence of oxygen, decomposition can release toxic hydrogenhydrogen sulphidesulphide, poisoning organisms and making the sea-bed lifeless., poisoning organisms and making the sea-bed lifeless.

6Photos from: Finnish Institute of Marine ResearchPhotos from: Finnish Institute of Marine Research(http://www2.fimr.fi/en/itamerikanta/galleria/15.(http://www2.fimr.fi/en/itamerikanta/galleria/15.

Bluegreen algal blooms, Gulf of FinlandBluegreen algal blooms, Gulf of Finland

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Weather conditions can alleviate or accelerateWeather conditions can alleviate or accelerate eutrophicationeutrophication.. Mild, wet winters are usually bad news for shallow, coastalMild, wet winters are usually bad news for shallow, coastalwaters, as nutrients are washed from farmland into rivers, waters, as nutrients are washed from farmland into rivers, lakes and ultimately the sea. lakes and ultimately the sea.

This creates suitable condition for intense algal blooms This creates suitable condition for intense algal blooms in the spring, which can lead to serious oxygen depletion,in the spring, which can lead to serious oxygen depletion,especially if the summer is then warm and calm.especially if the summer is then warm and calm.

8Photos from: Finnish Institute of Marine ResearchPhotos from: Finnish Institute of Marine Research(http://www2.fimr.fi/en/itamerikanta/galleria/15.(http://www2.fimr.fi/en/itamerikanta/galleria/15.

Bluegreen algal bloom, Gulf of Finland 6Bluegreen algal bloom, Gulf of Finland 6thth August, 2002 August, 2002

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Algal bloom on the Fyris River near SLU in Uppsala – the riverAlgal bloom on the Fyris River near SLU in Uppsala – the river

drains the intensively cultivated agricultural plain of Upplanddrains the intensively cultivated agricultural plain of Uppland

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So the rivers and seas turn green for a while –So the rivers and seas turn green for a while –

Who cares!?!Who cares!?!

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There are many reasons why governments and authorities There are many reasons why governments and authorities throughout the world are deeply concerned about the effects throughout the world are deeply concerned about the effects of agricultural pollution.of agricultural pollution.

Not least is the danger toNot least is the danger to

1)1) Public healthPublic health. In drinking water, high concentrations of. In drinking water, high concentrations of nitrate can cause methemoglobinemia, a potentially fatalnitrate can cause methemoglobinemia, a potentially fatal disease in infants also known as blue baby syndrome.disease in infants also known as blue baby syndrome.

2)2) Fish stocks and marine biodiversityFish stocks and marine biodiversity. Eutrophication destroys. Eutrophication destroys (a) spawning areas for economically valuable fish, and (a) spawning areas for economically valuable fish, and (b) habitats for other marine life.(b) habitats for other marine life.

3)3) The tourist industry.The tourist industry. Poisonous and/or unsightly and odorous Poisonous and/or unsightly and odorous coastal waters discourage tourists!coastal waters discourage tourists!

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Problems and causes - a summaryProblems and causes - a summary

NutrientNutrient over-enrichment of coastal ecosystems generally over-enrichment of coastal ecosystems generally triggers ecological changes that decrease the biological triggers ecological changes that decrease the biological diversity of bays and estuariesdiversity of bays and estuaries

While moderate N enrichment of some coastal waters may While moderate N enrichment of some coastal waters may increase fish production, over-enrichment generally degrades increase fish production, over-enrichment generally degrades the marine food web that supports commercially valuable fish.the marine food web that supports commercially valuable fish.

The marked increase in nutrient pollution of coastal waters has The marked increase in nutrient pollution of coastal waters has been accompanied by an increase in harmful algal blooms, and been accompanied by an increase in harmful algal blooms, and in at least some cases, pollution has triggered these blooms.in at least some cases, pollution has triggered these blooms.

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Problems and causes cont’dProblems and causes cont’d

High nutrient levels and the changes they cause in water High nutrient levels and the changes they cause in water quality and the makeup of the algal community are quality and the makeup of the algal community are detrimental to the health of coral reefs and the diversity of detrimental to the health of coral reefs and the diversity of animal life supported by seaweed and kelp communities.animal life supported by seaweed and kelp communities.

Research during the past decade confirms that N is the Research during the past decade confirms that N is the chief culprit in eutrophication and other impacts of nutrient chief culprit in eutrophication and other impacts of nutrient over-enrichment in temperate coastal waters, while P is over-enrichment in temperate coastal waters, while P is most problematic in eutrophication of freshwater lakes.most problematic in eutrophication of freshwater lakes.

Human conversion of atmospheric N into biologically Human conversion of atmospheric N into biologically useable forms, principally synthetic inorganic fertilizers, useable forms, principally synthetic inorganic fertilizers, now matches the natural rate of biological N fixation from now matches the natural rate of biological N fixation from all the land surfaces of the earth.all the land surfaces of the earth.

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Problems and causes cont’dProblems and causes cont’d

Both agriculture and the burning of fossil fuels Both agriculture and the burning of fossil fuels contribute significantly to non-point flows of N to coastal contribute significantly to non-point flows of N to coastal waters, either as direct runoff or airborne pollutants.waters, either as direct runoff or airborne pollutants.

N from animal wastesN from animal wastes that leaks directly to that leaks directly to surface waters or is volatilized to the atmosphere surface waters or is volatilized to the atmosphere as ammoniaas ammonia may be the largest single source of N may be the largest single source of N that moves from agricultural operations into that moves from agricultural operations into coastal waterscoastal waters..

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How do different agricultural activities contributeHow do different agricultural activities contributeto pollution, and how does this affect our ground to pollution, and how does this affect our ground and surface waters??and surface waters??

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Agricultural impacts on water qualityAgricultural impacts on water quality

AgriculturalAgricultural activityactivity 1. Tillage/ploughing1. Tillage/ploughing

ImpactsImpacts Surface waterSurface water GroundwaterGroundwater

SedimentSediment//turbidityturbidity: sediments : sediments carry phosphorus and pesticides carry phosphorus and pesticides adsorbed to sediment particles;adsorbed to sediment particles; siltationsiltation of river beds and loss of river beds and loss of habitat, spawning ground, etc.of habitat, spawning ground, etc.

17Autumn ploughing in SwedenAutumn ploughing in Sweden

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Agricultural activityAgricultural activity


2. Fertilizing2. Fertilizing

Runoff of nutrients, especially phosphorus,Runoff of nutrients, especially phosphorus,leading to eutrophication causing taste andleading to eutrophication causing taste andodour in public water supply, excessodour in public water supply, excessalgae growth leading to deoxygenatingalgae growth leading to deoxygenatingof water and fish kills. of water and fish kills.

Leaching of nitrate toLeaching of nitrate togroundwater; excessive levelsgroundwater; excessive levelsare a threat to public healthare a threat to public health.

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Fertilizing with anhydrous ammoniaFertilizing with anhydrous ammonia

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Agricultural activity Agricultural activity 3. Manure spreading3. Manure spreading


Carried out as a fertilizer activity;Carried out as a fertilizer activity;spreading on frozen ground resultsspreading on frozen ground resultsin high levels of contamination of in high levels of contamination of receiving waters by pathogens, receiving waters by pathogens, metals, phosphorus and nitrogen metals, phosphorus and nitrogen leading to eutrophication andleading to eutrophication andpotential contamination.potential contamination.

Contamination of ground-water,Contamination of ground-water, especially by nitrogenespecially by nitrogen

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Muck spreading in LithuaniaMuck spreading in Lithuania

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Agricultural activity Agricultural activity 4. Feedlots/animal paddocks 4. Feedlots/animal paddocks


Contamination of surface water withContamination of surface water withmany pathogens (bacteria, viruses, many pathogens (bacteria, viruses, etc.) leading to chronic public health etc.) leading to chronic public health problems. Also contamination by problems. Also contamination by

metals contained in urine and faeces.metals contained in urine and faeces.

Potential leaching of nitrogen,Potential leaching of nitrogen,metals, etc. to groundwater. metals, etc. to groundwater.

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Stock yard in SwedenStock yard in Sweden

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Agricultural activityAgricultural activity 5. Irrigation5. Irrigation


Runoff of salts leading to salinizationRunoff of salts leading to salinizationof surface waters; runoff of fertilizersof surface waters; runoff of fertilizersand pesticides to surface waters with and pesticides to surface waters with ecological damage, bioaccumulation ecological damage, bioaccumulation in edible fish species, etc. High levelsin edible fish species, etc. High levelsof trace elements such as selenium of trace elements such as selenium can occur with serious ecological can occur with serious ecological damage and potential human healthdamage and potential human healthimpacts. impacts.

Enrichment of groundwater withEnrichment of groundwater withsalts, nutrients (especially nitrate). salts, nutrients (especially nitrate).

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IrrigationIrrigation

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Agricultural activityAgricultural activity 6. Clear cutting 6. Clear cutting


Erosion of land, leading to highErosion of land, leading to highlevels of turbidity in rivers, siltation levels of turbidity in rivers, siltation of bottom habitat, etc. Disruption of bottom habitat, etc. Disruption and change of and change of hydrologic regime,hydrologic regime,often with loss of perennial streams;often with loss of perennial streams;causes public health problems causes public health problems due to loss of potable water.due to loss of potable water.

Disruption of hydrologic regime, Disruption of hydrologic regime, often with increased surface runoffoften with increased surface runoffand decreased groundwater and decreased groundwater recharge; affects surface water by recharge; affects surface water by decreasing flow in dry periods and decreasing flow in dry periods and concentrating nutrients and concentrating nutrients and contaminants in surface water. contaminants in surface water.

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Dramatic clear cut on the edges of a lake Dramatic clear cut on the edges of a lake

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Clear cut forest area with stream in SwedenClear cut forest area with stream in Sweden

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Agricultural activityAgricultural activity 7. Silviculture7. Silviculture


Broad range of effects: Broad range of effects: pesticide runoff and contaminationpesticide runoff and contaminationof surface water and fish; erosion of surface water and fish; erosion and sedimentation problems. and sedimentation problems.

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Silviculture – managed forest in SwedenSilviculture – managed forest in Sweden

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Agricultural activityAgricultural activity 8. Aquaculture 8. Aquaculture


Release of high levels of nutrientsRelease of high levels of nutrients to surface water and groundwaterto surface water and groundwater through feed and faeces, leadingthrough feed and faeces, leading to serious eutrophication.to serious eutrophication.

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Aquaculture – fish farming adds to the nutient burdenAquaculture – fish farming adds to the nutient burden

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So, we have a problem and the authorities are aware ofSo, we have a problem and the authorities are aware ofit.it.

What What policiespolicies exist within e.g. the European Union to exist within e.g. the European Union toalleviate the problemalleviate the problem?

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Ironically the EU’s Ironically the EU’s Common Agricultural PolicyCommon Agricultural Policy has tended has tendedto exasperate the problem!to exasperate the problem!

A recent study carried out by the European Nature A recent study carried out by the European Nature Heritage Fund concluded that:Heritage Fund concluded that:

’ ’most of the EU’s agricultural subsidies exert a negativemost of the EU’s agricultural subsidies exert a negativeimpact on the environment, for the majority of payments toimpact on the environment, for the majority of payments tofarmers are not tied to any environmental regulations’ farmers are not tied to any environmental regulations’

Over 60% of the agriculture budget’s total 44 billion Euro’sOver 60% of the agriculture budget’s total 44 billion Euro’scurrently go to the arable crops sector, and these subsidiescurrently go to the arable crops sector, and these subsidiesare not tied to environmental regulationsare not tied to environmental regulations

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Grassland - so important for biological diversity and forage Grassland - so important for biological diversity and forage cropping – is excluded from the payments.cropping – is excluded from the payments.

Maize, on the other hand, is heavily subsidized such as no Maize, on the other hand, is heavily subsidized such as no other crop, and ecologically it is highly problematic becauseother crop, and ecologically it is highly problematic becauseespecially large amounts of fertilizer are used in maize especially large amounts of fertilizer are used in maize farming.farming.

In Germany this has lead to a massive increase in maizeIn Germany this has lead to a massive increase in maizefarming, and at least 25% reduction of meadows and farming, and at least 25% reduction of meadows and pastures over the past twenty years.pastures over the past twenty years.

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Agricultural water pollution issues surfaced in connectionAgricultural water pollution issues surfaced in connectionwith the with the 1980 EU directive on drinking water1980 EU directive on drinking water, which required, which requiredmember states to ensure that certain quality objectivesmember states to ensure that certain quality objectivesfor drinking water were met by 1985.for drinking water were met by 1985.

But, during the second half of the 1980’s, it became clear thatBut, during the second half of the 1980’s, it became clear thatmost member states had not achieved these quality objectives.most member states had not achieved these quality objectives.

In particular, the maximum pollutant level for nitrate in drinkingIn particular, the maximum pollutant level for nitrate in drinkingwater, set at 50 mg per liter, was exceeded in many areas.water, set at 50 mg per liter, was exceeded in many areas.

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We will see later that further reforms to the CAP in the late We will see later that further reforms to the CAP in the late 1980’s (that offered subsidies to farmers who reduced livestock1980’s (that offered subsidies to farmers who reduced livestockdensity, decreased fertilizer use or switched to organic farmingdensity, decreased fertilizer use or switched to organic farmingor other extensive forms of production), some Nationalor other extensive forms of production), some Nationalcontrol measures introduced by individual member states,control measures introduced by individual member states,and the introduction in 1991 of the and the introduction in 1991 of the Nitrate DirectiveNitrate Directive,,are having some effects.are having some effects.

Annex 11 of the Nitrate directive outlines Annex 11 of the Nitrate directive outlines Code(s) of GoodCode(s) of GoodAgricultural PracticeAgricultural Practice with the objective of reducing pollution with the objective of reducing pollutionby nitrates.by nitrates.

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For some Candidate countries and Newly Applied StatesFor some Candidate countries and Newly Applied Statesproblems regarding agricultural pollution of water are problems regarding agricultural pollution of water are compounded by the lack of a good Agriculturalcompounded by the lack of a good AgriculturalAdvisory Service infrastructure.Advisory Service infrastructure.

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Let us now examine the situation in and around our Let us now examine the situation in and around our respective seas respective seas

i.e. i.e. The Baltic SeaThe Baltic Sea and and The Black SeaThe Black Sea

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I’ll start with the sea nearest home which of course isI’ll start with the sea nearest home which of course is

The Baltic seaThe Baltic sea

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Farming the land can pollute the seaFarming the land can pollute the sea

During recent decades the Baltic Sea has been burdened During recent decades the Baltic Sea has been burdened with increasing inputs ofwith increasing inputs of nutrientsnutrients from agricultural sources from agricultural sources such as manure and fertilisers. The consequentsuch as manure and fertilisers. The consequent eutrophicationeutrophicationhas widely disrupted marine ecosystems.has widely disrupted marine ecosystems.

There have been reductions in the most harmful agriculturalThere have been reductions in the most harmful agriculturalemissions, butemissions, but farmland remains one of the main sources of farmland remains one of the main sources of the surplus nutrients entering the Baltic Seathe surplus nutrients entering the Baltic Sea..

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The environmental quality of the Baltic Sea is largely The environmental quality of the Baltic Sea is largely influenced by the inputs of pollutants - particularly excessive influenced by the inputs of pollutants - particularly excessive nutrientsnutrients

NutrientsNutrients can enter the sea in runoff from arable land, mainlycan enter the sea in runoff from arable land, mainly via rivers and streams, but also along coasts; or in the form via rivers and streams, but also along coasts; or in the form of deposition from the air.of deposition from the air.

More than 25 of the 132 serious pollution More than 25 of the 132 serious pollution hot spotshot spots identified identified around the Baltic Sea since 1992 have already been cleaned around the Baltic Sea since 1992 have already been cleaned up.up.

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”Hot Spots”

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http://maps.grida.no/scripts/esrimap.dll?name=hotspots&cmd=map.htmlhttp://maps.grida.no/scripts/esrimap.dll?name=hotspots&cmd=map.html

Follow the above link to access an interactive map with details of allFollow the above link to access an interactive map with details of allthe knownthe known HOT SPOTSHOT SPOTS in the Baltic sea drainage basin. in the Baltic sea drainage basin.

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Photos from: Finnish Institute of Marine ResearchPhotos from: Finnish Institute of Marine Research(http://www2.fimr.fi/en/itamerikanta/galleria/15.html)(http://www2.fimr.fi/en/itamerikanta/galleria/15.html)

Marine Research Vessel on the Baltic SeaMarine Research Vessel on the Baltic Sea

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Deep water oxygen concentration in the Deep water oxygen concentration in the Baltic Proper and Gulf of Finland in 1999Baltic Proper and Gulf of Finland in 1999

HypoxiaHypoxia (oxygen concentration < 2 ml/l, pink (oxygen concentration < 2 ml/l, pink areas) andareas) and AnoxiaAnoxia (with presence of hydrogen (with presence of hydrogen

sulphide, red areas) in 1999.sulphide, red areas) in 1999.

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General InformationGeneral Information

Hotspot numberHotspot number 128128 (Laholm Bay)(Laholm Bay)

TypeType Agricultural RunoffAgricultural Runoff PriorityPriority NoNo

CountryCountry SESE

Receiving water bodyReceiving water body Kattegat Kattegat

AimAim Reduction of nutrient leachingReduction of nutrient leaching

Measures proposedMeasures proposedLimit to animal density, winter green fields, increase storage cap and restrict handling Limit to animal density, winter green fields, increase storage cap and restrict handling of manureof manure Latest UpdateLatest Update1999 1999

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Poland

Sweden

Latvia RussiaDenmark

FinlandEstonia

LithuaniaGermany

0

50 000

100 000

150 000

200 000

250 000

Nitrogen (tonnes in 1995)

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http://data.ecology.su.se/boing/http://data.ecology.su.se/boing/index.htmlindex.html

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Poland

Russia

SwedenFinland

DenmarkLatviaLithuania

EstoniaGermany

0

2 000

4 000

6 000

8 000

10 000

12 000

14 000

16 000

Phosphorus (tonnes in 1995)

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The 1990s - a decade of change for farming

A crucial change in agriculture in the Baltic Sea region during the 1990s has been the reintroduction of private ownership of farmland in countries in transition between the centrally-planned economy and the market economy. Through the 1990s prices for agricultural products remainedlow, while production costs were high. Agricultural production decreased overall, resulting in smaller production units, and substantial reductions in the use of inputs such as fertilisers and pesticides. In the future, however, significant reconstruction of the agricultural sector is to be expected, and increases in productivity. The transitionalcountries will need assistance to ensure that environmentally sustainable agricultural practices are adopted.

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In the EU countries changes were less dramatic, but the usage In the EU countries changes were less dramatic, but the usage of both manure and chemical fertilisers decreased widely.of both manure and chemical fertilisers decreased widely.In Germany, particularly in the east, the total area of farmland In Germany, particularly in the east, the total area of farmland shrank considerably during the 1990s. In Finland many farms shrank considerably during the 1990s. In Finland many farms also stopped operating, and phosphorus emissions from also stopped operating, and phosphorus emissions from agricultural sources declined significantly, as they had earlier agricultural sources declined significantly, as they had earlier in Sweden. in Sweden.

The reform of the EU The reform of the EU Common Agricultural Policy (CAP)Common Agricultural Policy (CAP) in in the EU in the early 1990s involved overall reductions in farmthe EU in the early 1990s involved overall reductions in farmsubsidies, and new incentives to promote environmentally subsidies, and new incentives to promote environmentally favourable agricultural practices. Requirements for subsidies nowfavourable agricultural practices. Requirements for subsidies nowinclude the adoption of farming practices designed to minimise include the adoption of farming practices designed to minimise animal waste and fertiliser runoff. The CAP is now also beinganimal waste and fertiliser runoff. The CAP is now also being gradually adopted by the countries hoping to join the EU, sogradually adopted by the countries hoping to join the EU, so within a few years a common set of agricultural policies and within a few years a common set of agricultural policies and subsidies should cover ten of the region's fourteen countries.subsidies should cover ten of the region's fourteen countries.

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0

20 000

40 000

60 000

80 000

100 000

120 000

140 000

160 000

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Yearly applied P by mineral fertilizers (ton P) - Lithuania

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0

60 000

120 000

180 000

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Yearly applied P by mineral fertilizers (ton P) - Poland

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0

20 000

40 000

60 000

80 000

100 000

120 000

140 000

160 000

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996

Yearly applied P by mineral fertilizers (ton P) - Sweden

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Nutrient inputsNutrient inputs

Nutrients enter the Baltic Sea either in water flowing into Nutrients enter the Baltic Sea either in water flowing into the sea, or from the atmosphere. Rivers and coastal pointthe sea, or from the atmosphere. Rivers and coastal pointsources such as urban and industrial wastewater outlets sources such as urban and industrial wastewater outlets account for most of the nutrient load - in fact three times moreaccount for most of the nutrient load - in fact three times morenitrogen and ten times more phosphorus than the nitrogen and ten times more phosphorus than the atmospheric input. atmospheric input.

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Industrial emissions Industrial emissions of NO2of NO2

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0

300

600

1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Denmark Finland Germany

Latvia Lithuania Norw ayPoland NW Russia Sw eden

Industrial NO2 emissions1000 tonnes

Data Sources: Data sources: EMEP. Lithuania: Ministry of Economy of the Republic of Lithuania. NW Russia: Russian Baltic 21 Lead Parties.

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Pig factory farmPig factory farm

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Pig farm waste lagoon – a source of ammonia!Pig farm waste lagoon – a source of ammonia!

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Trends in nutrient inputsTrends in nutrient inputs

· The inputs of phosphorus to the Baltic Sea are now much · The inputs of phosphorus to the Baltic Sea are now much lower than in the 1980s, thanks to improved wastewater lower than in the 1980s, thanks to improved wastewater treatment. treatment.

· But in recent years this decrease has slowed, and nutrient · But in recent years this decrease has slowed, and nutrient inputs from rivers evidently did not decrease during the period inputs from rivers evidently did not decrease during the period 1994-98.1994-98.

· Inputs of nitrogen, which largely originate from diffuse· Inputs of nitrogen, which largely originate from diffuse sources such as farmland have been more difficult to reduce. sources such as farmland have been more difficult to reduce.

· Annual atmospheric nitrogen deposition into the Baltic Sea· Annual atmospheric nitrogen deposition into the Baltic Sea decreased by nearly 40% between 1985 and 1997.decreased by nearly 40% between 1985 and 1997.

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One of the non-point sources significantly contributing to the One of the non-point sources significantly contributing to the pollution of the Baltic Sea is the agriculture sector, which ispollution of the Baltic Sea is the agriculture sector, which isestimated to account for 30-35 per cent of the total nitrogen estimated to account for 30-35 per cent of the total nitrogen load to the Baltic. load to the Baltic.

It is dominated by the consumption of the nitrogen fertilizers forIt is dominated by the consumption of the nitrogen fertilizers foragricultural lands. The massive waterborne nitrogen input to agricultural lands. The massive waterborne nitrogen input to the Baltic Sea is a major cause of marine eutrophication.the Baltic Sea is a major cause of marine eutrophication.

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Riverine nitrogen inputsto the Baltic Sea

0

400

800

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995

Source: BED http://data.ecology.su.se, andBaltic Sea Environment Proceedings No. 82A

1000 tonnes

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Riverine total phosphorous inputsto the Baltic Sea

0

20000

40000

1970 1975 1980 1985 1990

Source: BED http://data.ecology.su.se

Tonnes

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The Helsinki Commission, orThe Helsinki Commission, or HELCOMHELCOM, works to protect , works to protect the marine environment of the Baltic Sea from all the marine environment of the Baltic Sea from all sources of pollution through intergovernmental co-operationsources of pollution through intergovernmental co-operationbetween Denmark, Estonia, the European Community, between Denmark, Estonia, the European Community, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia and Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia and Sweden.Sweden.

HELCOM is the governing body of the "Convention on theHELCOM is the governing body of the "Convention on theProtection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area“Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area“ - more usually known as the- more usually known as the Helsinki ConventionHelsinki Convention

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The 1974 ConventionThe 1974 Convention

For the first time ever,For the first time ever, all the sources of pollution around all the sources of pollution around an entire seaan entire sea were made subject to a single convention, were made subject to a single convention, signed in 1974 by the then seven Baltic coastal states. signed in 1974 by the then seven Baltic coastal states.

The 1974 Convention entered into force on 3 May 1980. The 1974 Convention entered into force on 3 May 1980.

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The 1992 ConventionThe 1992 Convention

In the light of political changes, and developments inIn the light of political changes, and developments ininternational environmental and maritime law, a new international environmental and maritime law, a new convention was signed in 1992 by all the states bordering convention was signed in 1992 by all the states bordering on the Baltic Sea, and the European Community. After on the Baltic Sea, and the European Community. After ratification the Convention entered into force on ratification the Convention entered into force on 17 January 2000. The Convention covers the whole of 17 January 2000. The Convention covers the whole of the Baltic Sea area, including inland waters as well as the the Baltic Sea area, including inland waters as well as the water of the sea itself and the sea-bed. Measures are alsowater of the sea itself and the sea-bed. Measures are alsotaken in the whole catchment area of the Baltic Sea to taken in the whole catchment area of the Baltic Sea to reduce land-based pollution.reduce land-based pollution.

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The Helsinki Commission is responsible for monitoringThe Helsinki Commission is responsible for monitoring and implementing:and implementing:

• The The 1988 Ministerial Declaration1988 Ministerial Declaration, in particular concerning , in particular concerning reaching the target of 50% reductions in nutrient inputs. reaching the target of 50% reductions in nutrient inputs.

• The The Baltic SeaBaltic Sea JJointoint CComprehensive Environmentalomprehensive Environmental ActionAction PProgrammerogramme (JCP) (JCP) established in 1992 to facilitate and monitor the elimination established in 1992 to facilitate and monitor the elimination of the 132 most polluting sources within the Baltic Sea of the 132 most polluting sources within the Baltic Sea catchment area – known as "catchment area – known as "hot-spotshot-spots".".

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The countries in the Baltic Sea drainage basin haveThe countries in the Baltic Sea drainage basin havecommitted to most of the conventions that touch upon thecommitted to most of the conventions that touch upon theissue of eutrophication. The most important treaty, the issue of eutrophication. The most important treaty, the Helsinki conventionHelsinki convention has all the coastal countries actively has all the coastal countries actively involved.involved. Some of the more newly formed states, such as Estonia, Some of the more newly formed states, such as Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania have not yet signed all of the treaties Latvia and Lithuania have not yet signed all of the treaties for monitoring & pollution.for monitoring & pollution. An important treaty, theAn important treaty, the Aarhus conventionAarhus convention, address the , address the openness and public access of environmental information, openness and public access of environmental information, has not yet been signed by Russia.has not yet been signed by Russia.

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Pollution & Monitoring General

Country Helsinki UNCLOS NOx Wetlands Aarhus EIA

Belarus

Czech Rep

Denmark

Estonia

Finland

Germany

Latvia

Lithuania

Norway

Poland

Russia

Sweden

Ukraine

KeyNot signedSigned, but not entered or acceptedEntered or acceptedNot applicable

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United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS)(UNCLOS)

This convention is very wide in scope, and covers all use of This convention is very wide in scope, and covers all use of international seas, environmental, but also shipping and exploitation.international seas, environmental, but also shipping and exploitation.The environmental parts of this convention cover monitoring, The environmental parts of this convention cover monitoring, technical assistance and the establishment of basic environmentaltechnical assistance and the establishment of basic environmentalprinciples.principles.

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Convention of Long-Range Transboundary Air PollutionConvention of Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution (LRTAP) - NOx Protocol(LRTAP) - NOx Protocol

The objectives of this convention is to monitor and limit theThe objectives of this convention is to monitor and limit thelong-distance pollution of some hazardous substances, to man and long-distance pollution of some hazardous substances, to man and environment. environment.

Among these are nitrous oxide (NOx), sulphur and volatile organicAmong these are nitrous oxide (NOx), sulphur and volatile organiccompounds (VOC). The NOx protocol was selected for this indicator.compounds (VOC). The NOx protocol was selected for this indicator.

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Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Convention on Wetlands of International Importance especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention)especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention)

Wetlands are of importance as a natural barrier for nutrients in the Wetlands are of importance as a natural barrier for nutrients in the drainage basin. The Ramsar Convention seeks to reduce the loss of drainage basin. The Ramsar Convention seeks to reduce the loss of wetlands, and to conserve and protect.wetlands, and to conserve and protect.

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Convention on Access to Information , Public ParticipationConvention on Access to Information , Public Participationin Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental in Decision-Making and Access to Justice in Environmental Matters (Aarhus convention)Matters (Aarhus convention)

The Aarhus convention is the youngest in this presentation The Aarhus convention is the youngest in this presentation (that is why most countries have just signed it yet). This convention (that is why most countries have just signed it yet). This convention was created with the objective to ensure public access to all forms ofwas created with the objective to ensure public access to all forms of environmental information, such as monitoring and assessment.environmental information, such as monitoring and assessment.

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Convention of Environmental Impact Assessment in a Convention of Environmental Impact Assessment in a Transboundary Context (Espoo Convention)Transboundary Context (Espoo Convention)

Environmental Impact Assessments (Environmental Impact Assessments (EIAEIA) are studies on the ) are studies on the environmental implications of development, such as construction.environmental implications of development, such as construction.

Countries committed to this convention are required to create an Countries committed to this convention are required to create an EIA and to go for international co-operation in all development thatEIA and to go for international co-operation in all development thatcan effect the environment of the neighbouring countries.can effect the environment of the neighbouring countries.

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Now let us look at the situation around your seaNow let us look at the situation around your sea

The Black SeaThe Black Sea

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85

86

87

% Total Nitrates

52%

2% 4% 1% 7%

12%

0%7%

2%6%

7%

Danube

Dnieper

Dniester

Don

Sea of Azov

Bulgaria

Georgia

Romania

Russia

Turkey

Ukraine

The Danube accounts for more than 50% of the total NitrateThe Danube accounts for more than 50% of the total Nitrateinput to the Black Seainput to the Black Sea

88

89

Decline in Black Sea Commercial Fish StocksDecline in Black Sea Commercial Fish Stocks

Perceived major problemsPerceived major problems

90

91

(No more Jansson’s Temptation!!!!????)(No more Jansson’s Temptation!!!!????)

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93


Loss of habitats, notably wetlands and shelf areas,Loss of habitats, notably wetlands and shelf areas, supporting important biotic resourcessupporting important biotic resources

Loss or imminent loss of endangered species Loss or imminent loss of endangered species and their genomesand their genomes

Replacement of indigenous Black Sea speciesReplacement of indigenous Black Sea species with exotic oneswith exotic ones

Degradation of the Black Sea landscapeDegradation of the Black Sea landscape

94


Inadequate protection of marine and coastalInadequate protection of marine and coastal resources from maritime accidentsresources from maritime accidents

Unsanitary conditions in many beaches, bathing andUnsanitary conditions in many beaches, bathing and shellfish-growing watersshellfish-growing waters

95

Polluted beaches don’t attract many tourists!!Polluted beaches don’t attract many tourists!!

Documents

1 Lecture 1. Introduction to Agricultural Pollution Control Including particular reference to Eastern and Central Europe Prepared by Assoc. Prof. Philip