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Chapter 18

Nomadic Empires and Eurasian Integration

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Nomadic Society

Variety of Turkish peoples Rainfall in central Asia too little to support

large-scale agriculture Small-scale (supplemental) farming

Grazing animals thrive, central Asians turn to animal herding Food Clothing Shelter (yurts)

Not aimless wandering but migratory patterns to follow pastureland

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Nomads in Turkmenistan

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Nomadic Economy

Some small-scale trading, but extensive knowledge of trade routes

Engage in long-distance travel as organizers Caravan routes

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Nomadic Society Social classes—commoners and nobles

Nobles seldom rule, unless in war Then rule is absolute

Daily governance clan-based Charismatic individuals become nobles,

occasionally assert authority Unusually fluid status for nobility

Hereditary, but could be lost through incompetence

Advancement for meritorious non-nobles

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Nomadic Religion

Early on, shamans center of pagan worship

Appeal of Buddhism, Nestorian, Islam, Manichaeism from 6th c

Most convert to Islam in 10th – 14th c Saljuqs first due to Abbasid influence

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Military Organization

Large confederations under a ruler referred to as a khan

Authority extended through tribal elders

Exceptionally strong cavalries Mobility Speed Short, recurved bows

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Saljuq Turks and the Abbasid Empire 8-10th c Turkish peoples on border of

Abbasid empire Serve in Abbasid armies Eventually come to dominate Abbasid caliphs

1055 CE Saljuq leader Tughril Beg recognized as sultan Consolidated hold on Baghdad, then to other

parts of the empire Abbasid caliphs served as figureheads of

authority

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Saljuq Turks and the Byzantine Empire Begin migrating into Anatolia early 11th

c 1071 Saljuq Turks defeat Byzantine army at

Manzikert, take emperor captive Remake Anatolia politically and socially

Many conversions to Islam Ottoman Turks conquer Constantinople

1453 Anatolia becomes Turkish and Islamic

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Ghaznavid Turks in Northern India

Mahmud of Ghazni of Afghanistan, invades northern India First for plunder, later to rule Northern India dominated by 13th century Establish Sultanate of Delhi

Sultanate undergoes attacks from local rulers; holds out

Strong persecution of Buddhists, Hindus Pushes for conversions

The Mongol Empires

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Chinggis Khan and the Making of the Mongol Empire Temüjin (b. 1167)

Father prominent warrior, poisoned c. 1177, Temujin forced into poverty

Mastered steppe diplomacy, elimination of enemies

Brought all Mongol tribes into one confederation

1206 proclaimed Chinggis Khan: “Universal Ruler”

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Mongol Political Organization

Chinggis Khan changes how Mongols are governed Break up tribal organization Formed military units of different tribes Promoted officials on basis of merit and

loyalty Established distinctly non-nomadic

capital at Karakorum

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Mongol Army

Mongol population only 1 million (less than 1% of Chinese population) Army appx. 100-125,000

Strengths: Cavalry Short bows Rewarded enemies who surrender, cruel to

enemies who fight Begin military conquests

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Mongol Conquests

Conquest of China by 1220 Conquest of Afghanistan, Persia

Emissaries murdered, following year Chinggis Khan destroys ruler

Ravaged lands to prevent future rebellions Large-scale, long-term devastation

On death of Chinggis Khan, realm is divided into four empires (khanates)

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The Mongol Empires c.1300 CE

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The Mongols and Western Integration“Pax Mongolia” Experienced with long-distance trade

Protection of traveling merchants Volume of trade across central Asia

increases Diplomatic missions protected Missionary activity increases

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The Great Khan—China

Khubilai Khan (grandson of Chinggis Khan) consolidates rule of China Ruthless warrior, but religiously tolerant

Hosted Marco Polo Establishes Yuan dynasty Unsuccessful forays into Vietnam,

Cambodia, Burma, Java Two attempted invasions of Japan

(1274, 1281) turned back by typhoons (kamikaze: “divine winds”)

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Mongol Rule in China

Strive to maintain strict separation from Chinese Intermarriage forbidden Chinese forbidden to study Mongol

language Import administrators from other areas

(esp. Arabs, Persians) No desire to assimilate Chinese culture

No support for Confucianism; wither away Yet tolerated religious freedoms

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The Mongols and Buddhism

Shamanism remains popular Lamaist school of Buddhism (Tibet)

gains strength among Mongols Large element of magic, similar to

shamanism Ingratiating attitude to Mongols: khans as

incarnations of Buddha

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Decline of the Yuan Dynasty

Mongols spend bullion that supported paper currency Public loses confidence in paper money,

prices rise From 1320s, major power struggles Bubonic plague spreads 1330-1340s 1368 Mongols flee peasant rebellion

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The Ilkhanate of Persia

Abbasid empire toppled Baghdad sacked, 1258

Loot city, kill Caliph, 200,000 massacred

Attempted expansion into Syria checked by Muslim Egyptian forces

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Mongol Rule in Persia

Nomadic conquerors had to learn to rule sedentary societies Inexperience leads to loss of control of most lands

within a century Persia: depends on (local) existing

administration Relative free hand as long as deliver tax revenues Left matters of governance to bureaucracy

Eventually assimilated into Islamic lifestyle Conversion to Islam Persecution of non-Muslims; Persia again privileged

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Decline of the Mongol Ilkhanate Overspending, poor tax returns from

overburdened peasantry Ilkhan attempts to replace precious

metal currency with paper in 1290s Failure, forced to rescind

Factional fighting Last Ilkhan dies without heir in 1335;

Mongol rule collapses

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The Golden Horde—Russia

Conquest of Russia, 1237-1241 Established tributary relationship that

lasts to 15th century Rule over Crimea to late 18th century

Raids into Poland, Hungary, Germany

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Surviving Mongol Khanates

Khanate of Chaghatai in central Asia Continued threat to China

Golden Horde in Caucasus and steppes to mid-16th century Continued threat to Russia Remain in Crimea to 18th c

After the Mongols…

Tamerlane

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Tamerlane the Conqueror (c. 1336-1405) Turkish conqueror Timur

Timur the Lame: Tamerlane Tamerlane the Whirlwind

United nomads in Khanate of Chaghatai Major military campaigns following

decline of khanates in Persia, Afghanistan, Caucuses Built capital in Samarkand

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The Mongol Empires c.1300 CE

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Tamerlane’s Empire c. 1405 CE

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Tamerlane’s Heirs

Poor organization of governing structure

Power struggles divide empire into four regions

Yet heavily influenced several empires: Mughal Safavid Ottoman

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The Ottoman Empire

Ethnic Turks move into Anatolia after Persian Ilkhanate established

Osman, charismatic leader rises to dominate northwestern part of Anatolia

Declares independence from Saljuq sultan, 1299 Attacks Byzantine empire Followers known as Osmanlis (Ottomans)

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Ottoman Conquests

1350s conquests in the Balkans Local support for Ottoman invasion

Peasants unhappy with fragmented, ineffective Byzantine rule

Tamerlane defeats Ottoman forces in 1402, but recover by 1440s

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The Capture of Constantinople, 1453 Sultan Mehmed II (“Mehmed the

Conqueror”) Renamed city Istanbul, capital of

Ottoman empire