01 Introduction RM

8/12/2019 01 Introduction RM

1/70

Unit I : Introduction to Research

Methodology

By

Rajendra Lamsal

HOD: Finance and Marketing Department

Lumbini Banijya Campus


2/70

What is research?

Research is the systematic investigation into

and study of materials, sources, etc, in order

to establish facts and reach new

conclusions. b. an endeavour to discover

new or collate old facts etc by the scientific

study of a subject or by a course of critical

investigation.

2


3/70

Research Defined

A structured way of answering questions, a

systematic method of inquiry.

Research is a careful inquiry or examination to

discover new information or relationships and

to expand and verify existing knowledge.

Two key components

Systematicin nature

Focuses on a question of interest


4/70

Comparison Between Basic and Applied

Research

The terms basic and applied imply a clear

distinction between two classes of research.

In basic research, general theories, ideas, and

questions are explored and tested. It may even be

argued that this type of research should not have

priority, because it does not always result in an

immediate benefit to humans, but without basicresearch, many applied research programs would

be hard-pressed to get the start they need.


5/70

Comparisons:

Basic Research

Domain- driven - intended

to lead theoretical

development

Justified in terms of

gaining knowledge for its

sakethey focus on

making things better and

creating a more humanesociety

Done for the intellectual

pleasure of learning

Applied Research

Demand-driven

intended to lead to soln of

specific problems

Designed to solve

practical problemsof the

modern world

Done to test theories in

the field to achieve better

validity.


6/70

ComparisonsBasic

Mainly concerned with

generalizations and with the

formulation of a theory

Directed towards finding

information that has broad

base of applications

No commercial value

attached to the discoveries

that result from basicresearch.

Applied

Aims at finding a solution for an

immediate problem facing a

society

The central aim is to discover

a solution for some pressing

practical problem

There is commercial value,

e.g. research to improve

agricultural crop production


7/70

Comparisons

Basic

Analytic

Involves a search for

enduring or general

truths

Exploration curious

rather than mundaneevents

Applied

Synthetic

Entails a search for

pragmatics solutions toparticular problems

Entirely a pursuit of

social concerns


8/70

Nature of Research

Systematicplan, identify, design, collectdata, evaluate

Logicalexamine procedures to evaluate

conclusions Empiricaldecisions are based on data

(observation)

Reductivegeneral relationships areestablished from data

Replicableactions are recorded

8


9/70

Purpose of Research

1. Generation ofnew knowledge

The subject of study is relatively new and unstudied.

2. Validation of theory

Testing, modifying and expanding theories. (A theory is an ideathat attempts to explain reality).

3. Solving problems

An investigation is commissioned into a issue with a view to

remedying the situation based on the research findings.This is referred to as applied research.


10/70

Scientific Research

Science is the study of the structure and behavior of the

physical and natural world in systematic manner

specially through observation and experiment.

Results of science are developed from

Observation and experiments

They have the relationship of Cause and effect. Able to tested and retested

Universally true principle


11/70

Scientific Research

So the result of Scientific Research

Rigid

Empirically testable Clearly defined variables

Facilitates Direct observation and Correction

Have fixed answer (Objectivity)

Replicability (Can be tested again and again)

Scientific research is focused goal of problem solving. It follows

certain scientific steps, methods and it has the nature of

replicability.


12/70

Research Process

Realizing

Problem identification

Theoretical framework

Hypothesis formulation

Research design

Collection of data

Data analysis and interpretation and

Generalization of data


13/70

13


14/70

Characteristics/ Hallmarks of scientific research

Successful managerial decisions are seldom made on hunches or on

trail and error method. The sound and effective decisions are

always made on the basis of scientific research. Scientific

research focuses on solving problems in a step _by _step logical,

organized and rigorous manner in each step of research viz.,

identifying problem, gathering data, analyzing it and in arriving ata valid conclusion.

Organizations may not always be involved in the scientific research

due to various reasons like - simple problems which can solved

with previous experience, time contingency, lack of knowledge,resource constraints etc.,

14


15/70

However the scientific research performed in

a rigorous and systematic way leads to

repeatable and comparable research findings.It also enables the researchers to arrive at

accurate, dependable and subjective findings.

The hallmarks or distinguishing characteristicfeatures of scientific research are as follows:

1. Purposiveness 2. Rigor

3. Testability 4. Replicability

5. Precision and Confidence 6. Objectivity

7. Generalizability

15


16/70

1. Purposiveness :SR must have a focus or a specific purpose. Research

without purpose leads ambiguity. Clear purposeaffect whole research process.

Failure to mention the purpose clearly will raisedoubts in the minds of stakeholders of the research

as to whether the researcher has sufficient

understanding of the problem.16


17/70

2. Rigor Rigor means carefulness, scrupulousness and the degree of

exactness in research investigation. In order to make ameaningful and worthwhile contribution to the field ofknowledge, research must be carried out rigorously.Conducting a rigorous research requires a good theoreticalknowledge and a clearly laid out methodology. This willeliminate the bias; facilitate proper data collection andanalysis, which in turn would lead to sound and reliableresearch findings.

Example:A manager asks 10-12 employees how to increase the level of

commitment. If solely on the basis of their responses the managerreaches several conclusions on how employee commitment can beincreases, the whole approach to the investigation would beunscientific. It would lack rigor for the following reasons:


18/70

1. Based on few employees

2. Bias and incorrectness3. There might be other influences on commitment

which are ignored and are important for a researcherto know

Thus, Rigorous involves good theoretical base andthought out methodology.

These factors enable the researcher to collect theright kind of information from an appropriate sample

with the minimum degree of bias and facilitatesuitable analysis of the data gathered.


19/70

3.Testability

The researcher might hypothesize that

those employees who perceive greateropportunities for participation indecision making would have a higherlevel of commitment.

After random selection manager and researcherdevelops certain hypothesis on how manageremployee commitment can be enhanced, thenthese can be tested by applying certainstatistical tests to the data collected for thepurpose.

Test of hypothesis, is therefore, an importantcharacteristics of scientific research.


20/70

It means that it can be used again if similarcircumstances prevails. In other words, by usingsimilar method and procedures of data collectionand analysis as followed by the previous study, the

other research studies must also come with similarresults,

Replicability, It also eliminates the doubt that thehypotheses are supported by chance and ensures

that the findings reflect the true state of affairs.

4. Replicability


21/70

Precision refers to the closeness of the findings toreality based on a sample. It reflects the degree of accuracy and exactitude of

the results of the sample.

Confidence refers to the probability that our

estimations are correct. That is, it is not merely enough to be precise, but it is

also important that we can confidently claim that95% of the time our results would be true and there

is only a 5% chance of our being wrong. This is also known as confidence level.

5. Precision and Confidence


22/70

If the precision and confidence levels of the

research findings are higher then the findings of

the research study would be more scientific and

useful. Precision and confidence can be attained

through appropriate scientific sampling design.


23/70

6. Objectivity

The conclusions drawn through the interpretation of the resultsof data analysis should be objective; that is, they should bebased on the facts of the findings derived from actual data, and

not on our subjective or emotional values.Businessorganizations will suffer a greater extent of damage if a non-data-based or misleading conclusion drawn from the research isimplemented. Scientific approach ensures objectivity of research.

Example: If we had a hypothesis that stated that greaterparticipation in decision making will increase organizationalcommitment and this was not supported by the results, it makesno sense if the researcher continues to argue that increasedopportunities for employee participation would still help!


24/70

7. GeneralizabilityIt refers to the scope of applying the research findings ofone organizational setting to other settings of almostsimilar nature. The research will be more useful if thesolutions are applicable to a wider range. The moregenerlizable the research, the greater will be itsusefulness and value.

However it is not always possible to generalize theresearch findings to all other settings, situations ororganizations. For achieving genaralizability thesampling design has to be logically developed and datacollection method needs to be very sound.

This may increase the cost of conducting the research. Inmost of the cases though the research findings would bebased on scientific methods it is applicable only to aparticular organization, settings or situations


25/70

Social science Research

The application of scientific logic and methods

to social phenomena. Social science seeks to

understand social behavior through (a) the

measurement of social phenomena, (b) the

discovery of social regularities, and (c) thecreation of social theories.

Feelings, emotions, attitudes, and perceptions

cant not be tested in laboratory as done innatural and physical sciences.

25


26/70

The difficulty of applying Scientific Methods in Social

Science Research

1. Complexity of Subject Matter:

Many variables, acting independently and ininteraction must be considered in any attempt tounderstand complex human behavior.

Each individual is unique in the way he or shedevelops, in mental ability, in social andemotional behavior, and in total personality.

The behavior of humans in groups and the

influence of the behavior of group members onan individual must also be dealt with by

social scientists.


27/70

2. Difficulties in Observation:

more frequently involves interpretation on the

part of the observers. Motives, values, and

attitudes are not open to inspection.

Social scientists own values and attitudes may

influence both what they choose to observe

and their assessment of the findings on which

they base their conclusions.


28/70

3. Problems of Accurate Measurement:

Tools for measurement in the social sciences

are much less perfect and precise than the

tools of the natural sciences. Multivariate

statistical devices for analyzing data in thesocial sciences take care of relatively few of

the factors that obviously are interacting.

It is also difficult to ascertain honesty of therespondents.


29/70

4. Difficulties in Replication:

much more difficult to achieve. Social

phenomena are singular events and cannot be

repeated for purposes of observations.

Reproducing the same experiment again and

again can not be carried out completely in

social science research


30/70

5. Influence of the Measurement process on

result ( Difficulties in control)

the range of possibilities for controlled

experiments on human subjects is much more

limited than in the natural sciences.

The respondents, when they know that they

are being observed and measured, often tend

to react other than normally.


31/70

Quantitative and Qualitative paradigms of research

Aparadigmis a worldview or a set of assumptions abouthow things work.

Rossman & Rollis define paradigm as shared understandingsof reality

Quantitative and qualitative research methods involve verydifferent assumptions about how research should beconducted and the role of the researcher.


32/70

What is Quantitative Research?

Empirical investigation of quantitative propertiesand phenomena and their relationships.

a. Objective is to develop and employ mathematicalmodels, theories and/or hypothesis pertaining tothe topic being examined

b. Measurement process is crucial- provides the fundamental connection

between empirical observation andmathematical expression of quantitative

relationships


33/70

What is Qualitative Research?- Detailed data is gathered through open ended questions that

provide direct quotations.

- The interviewer is an integral part of the investigation

Umbrella term covering an array of interpretive techniques whichseek to describe, decode, translate, and otherwise come to termswith the meaning, not the frequency, of certain more or lessnaturally occurring phenomenon in the social world

The objective of qualitative research is to describe and possiblyexplain events and experiences.

According to qualitative research: Researchers can only come to

understand the social world through participants interpretations

interpretative approach.Reality is diverse and multifaceted. The goal is to get a picture of this

reality. To measure means to reduce itand therefore lose meaning.


34/70

Qualitative vs Quantitative

Qualitative Paradigm Quantitative Paradigm

Naturalistic (Realities aremultiple, constructed, and holistic. )

Positivistic (Reality is single,tangible, and fragmentable.)

Give a complete detaileddescription

Summarize andcategorize observations

Interpretation of

behavior

Prediction of behavior

Know only roughly what

you are looking for

Make explicit and clear

what you are looking for


35/70



Design emerges during

study

Design is explicit and

clear in advance

Ends with hypotheses &

theory

Begins with hypotheses

& theory

Time consuming efficient

detailed Less detailed

(summarize details in

categories or numbers)


36/70



Make abstractions,

concepts and

hypotheses from details(Inductive)

Form abstractions,

concepts and hypothesis

in advance and check ifyou can find them back

in the data (Deductive)

Part of to be observed

data. Insiders point ofview (emic).

Objective observer.

Outsiders point of view(etic)


37/70

What is management/business research? Business research is defined as the systematic

and objective process of generating informationfor aid in making business decisions.

Business Research provides the neededinformation that guides managers to makeinformed decisionsto successfully deal withproblems.

The information provided could be the result ofa careful analysis of data gatheredfirsthand or ofdata that are already available (in the company).


38/70


39/70

1. Identifying problems or opportunities: Beforeany strategy can be developed, an organization

must determine where it wants to go and howit will get there.

2. Diagnosing and assessing problemsoropportunities: After problems or

opportunities has been identified, Next step isto gain insight about the underlying factorscausing the situation.

3. Selecting and implementing a course ofaction:

Selecting best among alternatives


40/70

4. Evaluating the course of action: (1) Evaluationresearch is the formal , objective measurementand appraisal of the extent to which a givenactivity, project, or program has achieved itsobjectives. (2)Performance monitoring researchis done regularly to provide feedback forevaluation and control of business activities. (3)

Total Quality management is businessphilosophy that focuses on integrating customerdriven quality throughout the organization.


41/70

Types of Management Research

Policy Research

Managerial Research

Action Research

Evaluation Research


42/70

Policy Research

Policy-oriented research is designed to inform or understand one

or more aspects of the public and social policy process, including

decision making and policy formulation, implementation, and

evaluation.

A distinction may be made between research for policy andresearch of policy. Research for policy is research that informs the

various stages of the policy process (before the formation of policy

through to the implementation of policy). Research of policy is

concerned with how problems are defined, agendas are set, policyis formulated, decisions are made, and how policy is implemented,

evaluated, and changed (Nutley&Webb, 2000, p. 15).


43/70

Managerial Research

Managerial research is related to the specific problem of limitedscope for which management need of additional information on

which to base decision.

This types of research is focused on one particular activity,

scheme, or project launched by the management. Market potential for new product, best approach of new MIS etc.

It concerns the seeking of solutions as to what should be done to

solve problem and how to implement the solution

Managerial research tend to be future oriented as opposed totaking an interest in the effectiveness of prior actions.


44/70

Action Research

As its name suggests, action research

concerns actorsthose people carrying out

their professional actions from day to day -

and its purpose is to understand and toimprove those actions. It is about trying to

understand professional action from the

inside.


45/70

Carr and Kemmis (1986) describe action

research as being about:

the improvement of practice;

the improvement of the understanding of

practice;

the improvement of the situation in which the

practice takes place.

A ti h li


46/70

Action research as cyclic

(Spears & Skrzypic, 2012)Action research as cyclic


47/70

Evaluation Research

It is the formal, objective measurement and

appraisal of the extent to which a given activity,

project, or program has achieved its objectives.

In addition to measuring the extent to whichcompleted programs achieved their objectives or

whether continuing program are presently

performing as projected, evaluation research may

provide information about the major factors

influencing the observed performance level


48/70

Classification of Management research on the

basis of functional area

Financial management research

Production management research

HR management research

Marketing management research


49/70

What are Research Ethics?

Ethicsare norms or standards of behavior that

guide moral choices about our behavior and

our relationships with others

The goal is to ensure that no one is harmed or

suffers adverse consequences from research

activities


50/70

1. Ethical Treatment of Participants

Begin data collection by explaining to theparticipant the benefits expected from the

research Explain to the participants that their rights

and well-being will be adequately protected,and say how this will be done

Be certain that interviewers obtain theinformed consent of the participant


51/70

Issues Related to Protecting Participants

Informed consent

Debriefing

Right to Privacy/Confidentiality


52/70

a. Informed Consent

Securing informed consent from participants is amatter of fully disclosing the procedures of theproposed survey or other research design beforerequesting permission to proceed with the study.

If there is a chance the data could harm theparticipant (offering only limited confidentiality, asigned form detailing the types of limits should beobtained.

For most business research, oral consent is sufficient.


53/70

Informed Consent Procedures for Surveys

Introduce yourself. Brief description of the survey topic.

Geographical area of the respondents and target sample.

Sponsors name.

Describe purpose of research.

Time estimate for completing the interview

Promise anonymity and confidentiality (when appropriate).

Tell the interviewee that participation is voluntary.

Tell the participant that item-non response is acceptable.

Ask permission to begin.

b D b i fi P i i


54/70

b. Debriefing Participants

Debriefing involves several activities following thecollection of data:

Explanation of any deception.

Description of the hypothesis, goal, or purpose of the

study. Post study sharing of results.

Post study follow-up medical or psychological attention.

The use of deception is questionable; when it is used,

debrief any participant who has been deceived.


55/70

c. Rights to Privacy

Privacy is more than confidentiality. A right to privacy means one has the right to refuse

to be interviewed or to refuse to answer anyquestion in an interview.

To address these rights, ethical researchers do thefollowing: Inform participants of their right to refuse to answer any

question or participate in the study.

Obtain permission to interview participants.

Schedule field and phone interviews.

Limit the time required for participation.

Restrict observation to public behavior only.


56/70

2. Ethics and the Sponsor: Confidentiality

Some sponsors wish to undertake research

without revealing themselves. They have a

right to several types of confidentiality

including Sponsor non-disclosure

Purpose non-disclosure

Findings non-disclosure

S di l


57/70

Sponsor non-disclosure

Companies have a right to dissociate themselves

from the sponsorship of a research project. Due to the sensitive nature of management dilemma, or

the research question, sponsor may hire an outsideconsulting or research firm to complete research project:

For example, when a company is testing a new product idea or If a company is contemplating entering a new market, it may notwish to reveal its plans to competitor.

In such cases, it is the responsibility of the researcher to respectthis desire.


58/70

Fi di di l


59/70

Findings non-disclosure

Most sponsors feel no need to hide their

identity or the study purpose but want the

research data and findings to be confidential,

at least until the management decision is

made.

Thus sponsors usually demand and receive

findings nondisclosure between themselves or

their researchers.


60/70

3. Ethical Issues related to Researchers and Team

Members

Safety

Ethical behavior of assistants

Protection of anonymity

4 Other issues related to scientific


61/70

4. Other issues related to scientific

investigation

I. Plagiarism

ii. Fabrication and Falsification

III. Non-publication of Data

IV. Faulty Data Gathering

V. Poor Data Storage

VI .Misleading Authorship


62/70

I. Plagiarism

Means using ideas, writings, or drawings of others as your own.

Happens with student work as wellwith advent of Internet, the availability of

research is greateris often more tempting

Can occur unintentionally with students and researchers if they are careless or

nonsystematic about their pre-writing and revision to a paper/manuscript

Many schools are accessing plagiarism software

Anti-Plagiarism V.1.2

Common practice is to circulate drafts of papers among scholars who are know to

be working in a specific areagive credit where credit is due.


63/70

ii. Fabrication and Falsification

Occasionally, scientists will be caught making up research

Technical term is called Cooking the data

I only need a few more subjects, but I am running out of time.

Falsification can also occur with cited literature

Be careful how you are interpreting what an author says If it aint there, dont makeit up out of thin air.

Is another reason you should rely primarily on primary, original sources.


64/70

III. Non-publication of Data

This refers to not including data because they dont support the hypothesis

Sometimes in the data, there are extreme scores or outliers - and these outliers are

trimmed from the data set

They can result in nonsiginificant findings but should automatically be cut.

Nonsiginificant results often give just as much important information as do significant

results.


65/70

IV. Faulty Data Gathering

Aspects that students should be aware of:

1. Continuing with data collection from participants who are not meeting the requirement of

the research

EXAMPLES?

Subject comes in with a hangover and you use that data anyway

2. Malfunctioning equipment

3. Inappropriate treatment of subjects

4. Recording data incorrectly


66/70

V. Poor Data Storage

Rule of thumb is to keep data for 3 years

All original data should be kept if there is a question

VI .Misleading Authorship

Order of authorship is based on authors contributions 1stauthor usually developed the idea for the research

This needs to be decided BEFORE the research is started.

Two rules help to define authorship:

1. Technicians are not necessarily authors

Data collectors are not necessarily included in the authorship

2. Authorship SHOULD include only those who directly contribute

Methodology for Management Research:


67/70

Methodology for Management Research:

Obj ti D t R i t d R h O t t


68/70

Objectives Data Requirements and

analysis

Research Output


analysis

Research Output


69/70

analysis

Objectives Data Requirements and Research Output


70/70


analysis

Research Output

Documents

01 Introduction RM