RM PART 1-INTRODUCTION (33)-240912_023921

7/28/2019 RM PART 1-INTRODUCTION (33)-240912_023921

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1. WHAT IS RESEARCH

2. PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

3. SOCIAL AND BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCESTUDIES

4. STEPS IN THE RESEARCHINVESTIGATION

5. RESOURCES FOR RESEARCH

6. RESEARCH ETHICS

7. RESEARCH PROJECT: A CHECKLIST

PART 1

INTRODUCTION


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RESEARCH - WHAT IS IT?

It is an investigative process that can bedistinguished from other forms ofinvestigations by three unique requirements:

1. Objectivity

2. Reproducibility

3. Systematization

Brown, 1980


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WHAT IS RESEARCH?

A scientific process of inquiry that involves

purposeful, systematic and rigorous collection

of data. Analysis and interpretation of the data

are then made in order to gain new knowledge

or add to existing knowledge. Research has

the ultimate aim of developing an organized

body of knowledge.


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- A cyclical process of steps that typically

begins with identifying the problem or issueof the study. It then consists of reviewing the

literature, specifying a purpose for the study,

and forming an interpretation of the

information. This process culminates in areport disseminated to the audience that is

evaluated and used.


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PURPOSE OF RESEARCH

0 Advancing Knowledge

0 Development of Theories

THROUGH

Systematic, Logical, and Empirical Meansand Results can be Replicated


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MOTIVATIONS FOR RESEARCH

Reasons why research is undertaken:

- address gaps in knowledge

- expand knowledge

- Improve practice through new ideas, new insights

into methods- make more informed choices/decisions based on

available information

- create data base for policy making as research

provides an understanding of the factors affecting

desired outcomes

- Helps build skills organizational, analytical, writing,

presentation, time management, etc.


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USEFULNESS OF RESEARCH TO

PRACTITIONERS

The practical relevance or usefulness ofresearch may be assessed by using thepractitioner as a form of reference:

1. Descriptive RelevanceAccuracy of findings in capturing phenomenaencountered by practitioners.

2. Goal RelevanceRefers to the correspondence of outcome(dependent) variables in a theory to the thingsthe practitioner wishes to influence.


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3.Operational Validity

Concerns the ability of the practitioner toimplement action implications of a theory bymanipulating its caused (independent variables).

4. Non Obviousness

Degree to which a theory meets or exceeds thecomplexity of common sense theory already usedby practitioner.

5.TimelinessConcerns the requirement that a theory beavailable to practitioners in time to use it to dealwith problems.


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SOCIAL AND BEHAVIOURAL SCIENCE STUDIES

There is a chronic pessimistic feeling in the socialand behavioural sciences that, when compared to

the natural sciences, their progress has beenexceeding slow.

TWO GENERAL SOURCES OF PESSIMISM IN THE

SOCIAL SCIENCES:

1. POOR CUMULATION

Refers to the observation that the social sciences do notshow orderly progress and development as shown by

physical sciences such as physics and chemistry.The newer work of the physical sciences builds directly uponprevious work.

The social sciences seem almost to be starting new with eachsucceeding volume of their research journals.


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2. SMALL EFFECTS

The second source of pessimism is the problemof small effects. Even when the results seem to

be replicable, the practical magnitude of the

effect is always small. That is, they account for

only a trivial proportion of the variance. Thus,the size effect is likely to be so small that it

might not be of any practical use.


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THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The accumulation of knowledge in the Social Sciences

can be obtained through day-to-day experience andobservation which may or may not be based on some

kind of testing (ie. Folk Knowledge).

However, much of the accumulation of knowledge

utilizes the Scientific Method. This method yields

Scientific Knowledge which combines the testing of

Folk Knowledge and theorizing of Literary Knowledge(I.e. created by an abstracting process which

highlights the essential elements of human

experience).


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Contd

The Scientific approach to knowledge accumulationunderlies the Deductive and Positive approaches to

Social Scientific analysis.

DEDUCTION- A process whereby general statementsor hypotheses are generated by starting fromsome basic axioms or assumptions.

INDUCTION - A process whereby hypotheses arederivable from empirical observations which mightshow a high degree of regularity (e.g. grounded

theory).

POSITIVE- Analysis is concerned with what is actuallyoccurring or has occurred. The focus is on

explaining with a view of predicting.


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STEPS IN THE RESEARCH INVESTIGATION

1. Identification of Research Issue and Research

Question.

2. Formulation of Research Problem

3. Review of Related Literature

4. Clarification of Concept

Identification/Operationalization of Variables

Statement of Hypothesis

5. Selection of Research Design

6. Selection of Data Collection Technique

7. Selection of Subjects8. Data Coding

9. Data Analysis

10. Results

11. Discussions

4


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IDENTIFICATION OF

RESEARCH ISSUE/QUESTIONS

FOPRMULATION OF

RESEARCH PROBLEMS

REVIEW OF

RELATED

LITERATURE

CLARIFICATION

OF CONCEPTS

IDENTIFICATION

OF VARIABLES

STATEMENT OFHYPOTHESIS

1 23

4

SELECTION OF

RESEARCH

DESIGN

EXPLORATORY

DESCRIPTIVE

CAUSAL

SURVEYS

CASE STUDIES

LABORATORY

EXPERIMENTS

FIELD

EXPERIMENTS

SELECTION OF

DATA COLLECTION

TECHNIQUES

PRIMARY

DATA

SECONDARY

DATA

OBSERVATION

DIRECT

COMMUNICATION

PARTICIPANT

NON-PARTICIPANT

QUESTIONNAIRES

INTERVIEWS

PROJECTIVE

5

6


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SELECTION OF

DATA COLLECTION

TECHNIQUES

PRIMARY

DATA

SECONDARY

DATA

OBSERVATION

DIRECTCOMMUNICATION

PARTICIPANT

NON-PARTICIPANT

QUESTIONNAIRES

INTERVIEWS

PROJECTIVE

6

SELECTION OF

SUBJECTS

CENSUS

SAMPLES

7

PROBABILITY

NON-PROBABILITY

RANDOM

SYSTEMATIC

STRATIFIED

CLUSTER

JUDGMENTAL

QUOTA

CONVENIENCE

PLANNING OF

DATA CODING

PLANNING OF

DATA ANALYSISDATA ANALYSIS RESULTS DISCUSSIONS

8

9

10 11 12


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INITIAL QUESTIONS

Is the Research Feasible?

Is it Practical?

Are there suitable techniques available

for carrying it out?

Are adequate resources available?

(Time, Facilities, Financial, Skills)

CHOICE WILL DEPEND UPON THE CONSIDERATIONON THE FOLLOWING FACTORS.


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RESOURCES FOR RESEARCH

AVAILABILITY OF:

TIMEFUNDS

SKILLS

PHYSICALINTEREST


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QUESTIONS

WHY

WHAT

HOW

WHEN

WHO WITHHOW MUCH


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RESEARCH ETHICS

ETHICAL ISSUES

1. Conducting the Research Effort.

2. Reporting or Applying the results of

the research


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THREE SPECIFIC CONCERNS INRESEARCH ETHICS

1. DECEPTION AND ITS EFFECTS

i) By Omission - researchers do not tellsubjects the whole truth about the study.

ii) By Commission - researchers givesubjects false information

i.e deliberate lying.


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2. INVASION OF THE PRIVACY OF SUBJECTS

- By violating their rights, whether, when, and

to what extent that their attitudes, beliefs,behaviour, and opinion are to be shared with

others or withheld. E.g. using hidden codes.

3. HARM TO INDIVIDUALS OR GROUPS, THE

RESEARCH DISCIPLINE, OR TO SOCIETY

IN GENERAL.

- Results of a particular study may harm aparticular group.

THE RESEARCH REPORT


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THE RESEARCH REPORT :

A CHECKLIST OF ITEMS FOR POSSIBLE INCLUSION.The following is a checklist of items which are typically included in a research dissertation or report. Not all ofthe suggested categories are necessary or appropriate for all studies, and the order of items within chaptersmay vary somewhat. These items are intended to serve as a guide.

CHAPTER ONE: THE RESEARCH PROBLEM-----------Introduction

-----------Background of the problem (eg. trends related to the problem, unresolvedissues, social concerns)

-----------Statement of the problem situation

(basic difficulty - area of concern, felt need)

-----------Purpose of the study (goal oriented) emphasizing practical outcomes-----------Questions to be answered or objectives to be investigated

-----------Conceptual or substantive assumptions (postulates)

-----------Rationale and Theoretical framework (when appropriate)

-----------Delineation of the research problem (explication of relationshipsamong variables or comparisons to be considered)

-----------Statement of hypotheses (conceptual rendition subsequently followedby operational statements in this Chapter and/or in theMethodology chapter)

-----------Importance of the study - may overlap with statement of the researchproblems)

-----------Definition of terms (largely conceptual here; operational definitionsmay follow in the Methodology chapter)

-----------Scope and delimitations of the study (narrowing of focus)-----------Outline of the remainder of the thesis or ro osal


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CHAPTER TWO: REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

--------Organization of the present chapter overview

--------Historical background (if necessary)

Purposes to be served by Review of Related Literature:

--------Acquaint reader with existing studies relative to what have been found,who has done work, when and where latest research studies werecompleted, and what approaches involving research methodology,instrumentation, and statistical analyses were followed (literaturereview of methodology sometimes saved for chapter onMethodology.

--------Establish possible need for study and likelihood for obtainingmeaningful, relevant, and significant results.

--------Furnish from delineation of various theoretical positions a conceptualframework affording bases for generation of hypotheses andstatement of their rationale (when appropriate)

Note: In some highly theoretical studies the chapter Review of Literature mayneed to precede The Research Problem chapter so that the theoreticalframework is established for a succinct statement of the research problemand hypotheses. In such a case, an advance organizer in the form of abrief general statement of the purpose of the entire investigation should

come right at the beginning of the Review of Related Literature chapter.


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Sources for Literature Review-------General integrative reviews cited that relate to the problem

situation or research problem such as those found inReview of Educational Research, Encyclopedia of

Educational Research, or Psychological Bulletin.

------ Specific books, monographs, bulletin, reports and research

articles - preference shown in most instances of literature

of the last 10 years.------ Unpublished materials (e.g. dissertations, theses, papers

presented at recent professional meetings not yet in

published form).

------ Selection and arrangement of literature review often in terms

of questions to be considered, hypotheses set forth, orobjectives or specific purposes delineated in the research

problem chapter.

------ Summary of literature review (very brief)

CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY OR PRECEDURES


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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY OR PRECEDURES

-------Overview

-------Description of research methodology or approach (eg. Experimental, quasi-experimental, correlation, causal-comparative, or survey)

-------Research design (spell out independent, dependent and other variables and

sometimes formulate an operational statement of the research hypotheses in nullform so as to set stage for an appropriate research design permitting statisticalinferences).

-------Pilot studies (as they apply to research design, development of instruments, datacollection techniques, and characteristics of the sample)

-------Selection of subjects (this is concerned with sample and population.

-------Instrumentation (tests, measures, observations, scales, and questionnaires).-------Field, classroom or laboratory procedures (eg. Instructions to subjects or

distribution of materials)

-------Data collection and recording

-------Data processing and analysis (statistical analysis)

-------Methodological assumptions

-------Limitations (weaknesses)

-------Possible restatement of conceptual hypotheses from problem chapter inoperational form relative to instrumentation and experimental procedure ordesign followed (operationally stated hypotheses amenable to statistical testing) if not done elsewhere.

-------Summary (optional)


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CHAPTER FOUR: FINDINGS (ANALYSIS AND EVALUATION)

--------Findings are presented in table or charts when appropriate

------- Findings reported with respect to furnishing evidence for eachquestion asked or hypothesis posted in problem statement

------- Appropriate headings are established to correspond to each questionor hypothesis considered

------- Factual information kept separate from interpretation, inference, andevaluation (one section for findings and one section for

interpretation or discussion)

Note: In certain historical, case study and anthropological investigations,factual and interpretive material may meet to be interwoven tosustain interest level, although the text should clearly reveal what is

fact and what is interpretation.

------ Separate section often entitled Discussion, Interpretation, orEvaluation ties together findings in relation to theory, review ofliterature, or rationale.

------- Summary of chapter


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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS,

RECOMMENDATIONS

-------Brief summary of everything covered in first three

chapters and in findings portion of Chapter Four

-------Conclusions (so what of findings: often the

hypotheses restated as inferences with some degree

of definitive commitment and generalizability)

------Recommendations (practical suggestions for

implementation of findings or for additional research)

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RM PART 1-INTRODUCTION (33)-240912_023921