The MAANZ MXpress ProgramQualitative Research and Attitude 

Measurement TechniquesDr Brian Monger

Copyright June 2013. This Power Point program and the associated documents remain the intellectual property and the copyright of the author and of The Marketing Association of Australia and New Zealand Inc. These notes may be used only for personal study and not in any education or training program. Persons and/or

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Marketing In Black and White 3

Dr. Brian Monger

• Brian Monger is the CEO of MAANZ International and a Professional marketer and consultant with over 40 years 

experience.

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Introduction to Qualitative Research

• A common feature of marketing research is the attempt to have respondents communicate their feelings, attitudes, opinions, and evaluations in

some measurable form.

• Qualitative research focuses on the nature or structure of attitudes and motivations rather than

their frequency and distribution.

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There are two basic methods of qualitative research.  

• The group depth interview, commonly called a focus group, assembles eight to twelve respondents with a trained moderator who guides a discussion,

generally lasting about two hours.

• The individual depth interview (or IDI) collects information serially in one-on-one sessions that

generally lasts about 45 minutes to an hour.

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Why conduct qualitative research?  

• Although qualitative research does not tell you how widely distributed an attitude or motivation might be,

it does tell you, and in ways surveys cannot-from where those attitudes arise, how they are structured,

and what broader significance they may have for consumer behaviour.

• The rich insights that come from close inspection of individuals can never be duplicated by large-scale

conclusive forms of research, which view the market from a more distant vantage point.

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Limitations on the Reliability of a Qualitative Study

• Sample size• Sampling Procedure

• Question structure and sequence

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Understanding Buyers

• An understanding of buyers' attitudes is meant to explain the why aspect of buyers' past, present and future

behaviour. • Such understanding can be achieved through some

complicated means, which necessitate a more subtle approach than direct questioning.

• It is so primarily important because attitude variables (e.g. belief, preference, motivation and intention) are

conceptual ideas which are not only hard to explore, but also difficult to record the responses accurately and

comprehensively.

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Understanding Buyers

• Attitudes are multidimensional, there is always more than one aspect that make up one's attitudes.

• The researcher should examine all relevant aspects if he or she wishes to evaluate buyers' attitudes

towards a product, brand or service.

• The results of Qualitative Research can often be recorded quantitatively. That is by using scaling

techniques.

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Attitude Measurement

• Attitudes are usually viewed as a long term or enduring disposition to consistently respond in a given manner to various aspects of the world (within a similar situation or context) including persons, events, and

objects. There are three components of attitude:

• Affective component: reflects an individuals general feelings towards an object.

• Cognitive component: represents one's awareness of and knowledge about an object.

• Behavioural component: reflects buying intentions and behavioural expectations.

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Attitudes as Hypothetical Constructs

• The term 'hypothetical construct' is used to describe a variable that is not directly observable,

but is measurable by an indirect means such as verbal expression or overt behaviour.

• Attitudes are considered to be such variables.

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The Attitude‐Measuring Process

• There are a variety of techniques that have been devised to measure attitudes.

• These techniques range from direct to indirect, physiological to verbal

• Obtaining verbal statements from respondents generally requires that the respondent perform a task such as ranking, rating, sorting, or making a

choice or a comparison.

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The Attitude‐Measuring Process

• Ranking tasks require that the respondent rank order a small number of objects in overall preference on the basis of some characteristic or stimulus.

• Rating asks the respondent to estimate the magnitude of a characteristic, or quality, that an object possesses. The respondent indicates the position on a scale(s) where

he or she would rate an object.

• Sorting might present the respondent with several product concepts typed on cards and require that the respondent arrange the cards into a number of piles or

otherwise classify the product concepts.

• Choice between two or more alternatives is another type of attitude measurement-it is assumed that the chosen object is preferred over the other(s).

• Physiological measures of attitudes provide a means of measuring attitudes without verbally questioning the respondent. For example, galvanic skin responses,

measure blood pressure, etc., are physiological measures.

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Behavioural Intention

• The behavioural component of an attitude involves the behavioural expectation of an individual toward an

attitudinal object.

• Category scales to measure the behavioural component of an attitude ask a respondent's "likelihood" of purchase or

intention to perform some future action. • The wording of statements used in these cases often includes phrases such as "I would recommend," "I would

write," or "I would buy," to indicate action tendencies.

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Projective Techniques

• (1) Association Techniques• (2) Completion Techniques• (3) Construction Techniques• (4) Expressive Techniques

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SCALES

A scale is any series of items which are progressively arranged according to value or magnitude into which an item can be placed

according to its quantification.

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Scaling and Numbers

• The term scaling is often used in the process of measuring such things as attitudes and perceptions, where numbers are assigned to describe or represent objects, persons, households or events according to a

fixed set of rules. • Numbers may be numeric or simply symbolic; alternatively they can be classified under one of the following four types; each possesses some inherent properties which govern the type of mathematical

operations that can be performed.

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The differences between measurement and scaling

• Measurement is the assignment of numbers or other symbols to characteristics of objects according to

certain pre-specified rules. • Measurement precedes scaling in test construction.

• Scaling is an extension of measurement where it involves the generation of a continuum upon which

measured objects are located.

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The Main Scales of Measurement

• The Nominal scale: 

• This is used as a labelling scheme where numbers serve only as labels or tags for identifying and

classifying objects. • The numbers in a nominal scale do not reflect the

amount of a characteristic possessed by the objects, rather they are used only for identification.

• For example, numbers on football players uniforms, street names, or licence plate numbers.

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The Ordinal scale

• This is a ranking scale in which numbers are assigned to objects to indicate the relative extent to which

some characteristic is possessed. • It is then possible to determine whether an object has

more or less of a characteristic than some other object.

• For example, rankings of teams for the AFL or NRL, socioeconomic status and quality rankings.

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The Interval scale

• These numbers are used to rank objects such that numerically equal distances on the scale represent

equal distances in the characteristic being measured. • Examples include time and temperature.

• The Ratio scale• This is used to identify or classify objects, rank order

the objects, and compare intervals or differences. • For example, height, age, and income.

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There are two main types of scales: comparative and non‐comparative.

• Comparative scales - a direct comparison of stimulus objects is elicited. Thus, two brands may be compared

along a dimension such as quality.

• Non-comparative scales - the respondent provides whatever standard seems appropriate to him/her, thus,

only one object is evaluated at a time. • This type of scaling does not compare the object against

another object or some standard. • Rather, the rater uses whatever standard seems most appropriate to him or her. In this case, one brand is rated

on a scale independent of other brands.

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Comparative Scaling Techniques.

• Paired comparison scaling• Here a respondent is presented with two objects at a

time and asked to select one object in the pair according to some criterion.

• The data obtained is ordinal in nature. • This is frequently used in marketing when

comparisons of products or brands are being made.

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Rank order scaling

• This is where respondents are presented with several objects simultaneously and asked to order or rank

them according to some criterion. • This is commonly used to measure preferences for

brands as well as the importance of attributes.

• It is a simpler scale than the paired-comparison scale as its procedure can easily be under-stood by the

respondent.

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Q‐sort scaling

• This technique uses a rank order procedure in which objects are sorted into piles based on similarity with

respect to some criterion.

• Magnitude estimation• Here numbers are assigned to objects such that ratios

between the assigned numbers reflect ratios among the objects on the specified criterion.

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Non‐comparative Scaling Techniques

• Continuous rating scale• In this measurement method the respondents rate the objects by placing a

mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs from one extreme of the criterion variable to the other.

• The form of the continuous scale varies considerably depending on the imagination of the researcher. Their use in marketing has been limited

because they are not as reliable as itemised scales, the scoring process is cumbersome, and they provide little additional information.

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Itemised rating scales

• Here respondents are provided with scales having numbers and/or brief descriptions associated with

each category.

• The respondents are required to select one of the specified categories that best describes the object

being rated.

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Likert summated scale

• Likert is based on summated ratings. • A list (or series) of attitude statements about the

object under study is compiled and the respondent indicates his or her degree of agreement or

disagreement with each of these statements that are related to the object in question on a five-point scale:

• strongly agree• somewhat agree

• neither agree nor disagree;• somewhat disagree• strongly disagree.

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Semantic differential scale

• This is a seven-point rating scale with end points associated with bipolar labels that have semantic meaning. As the

term suggests, this scaling technique measures the difference between words. Respondents are required to rate objects on a number of itemised, seven-point rating

scales bounded at each end by one of two bipolar adjectives.

• The respondent places a cross 'X' in the position which indicates his or her thinking about a value offer in terms

of the 'construct' or 'dimension' along a bi-polar adjective.

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Bi-polar adjectives :

• active/passive • unsuccessful/ successful

• cruel/kind• important/ unimportant

• curved/straight• angular/rounded

• masculine/feminine• calm/excitable

• untimely/timely • false/true

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Staple scale

• This is a modified version of a semantic differential scale, using a ten-point scale ranging from -5 to +5 to

measure direction and intensity of attitude simultaneously. It uses a single word adjective instead of the polar pair of adjectives or descriptive phrases.

Each point on a Stapel scale is assigned a number

• An advantage of the Stapel scale is that there is no need to worry about phrase bi-polarity - a +5 score is

truly opposite to a -5 score and so on.

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Other types of rating scales employed in marketing research include:

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Pictorial rating scales•With regard to the piece of cake which you've just tasted, can you please indicate which of the following facial expressions best describes your reaction to its level of sweetness?

•Another way is to present a set of word descriptions in varying print sizes for the respondent to express the intensity of his attitude or feeling:•In your opinion, do you think that abortion should be legally allowed?

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Itemised (or verbal) rating scale

• Itemised rating scale (or verbal rating scale) is one where the respondent is presented with a set of

response categories, ordered by the scale positions so as to reflect the degree of attitude held. Itemised rating scale is most commonly used in marketing

research.• Example

• How likely would you buy this product if it is available in the market at $4.95 per bottle?

• I definitely would buy 1• I probably would buy 2• I might or might not buy 3• I probably would not buy 4• I definitely would not buy 5

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Itemised (or verbal) rating scale

• When constructing an itemised rating scale, the following major issues will need to be considered:

• number of categories• odd or even number of categories

• balanced or unbalanced scales• forced or unforced scales

• comparative or non-comparative scales - which we have previously described.

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Number of categories 

• There is no fixed rule governing the exact number of response categories required. The researcher can create as

many response categories as he deems appropriate, ranging from the simple dichotomous (e.g. Yes-No

answer) to as many as 100 in number. • Odd or even number of categories

• An even number of response categories refers when half of the response categories are positive (favourable) statements while the remaining half are negative (or

unfavourable) statements. An odd number of categories, on the other hand, includes an additional category which

is usually identified as the neutral position.

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Balanced or unbalanced scale

• In a balanced scale, the number of favourable response categories equals that of unfavourable response

categories. •

• Scales are unbalanced in that they may have a greater number of favourable scale points than unfavourable 

scale points (or vice versa). • Generally speaking, when prior knowledge through

exploratory research suggests a high likelihood of favourable (or unfavourable) responses to the attitude

under study, it will be appropriate to adopt an unbalanced scale.

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Forced scale and Unforced scales

• The provision, or the lack of it, of 'don't know' or 'no opinion' category provides the distinction between a

forced scale and an unforced scale. • If such a category is not provided, thus forcing the

respondent to take one side or the other, we have a forced scale. Otherwise, we have an unforced scale.

• A 'don't know' answer should not be looked upon as a neutral response, since a respondent who is willing to express his feeling towards the research question may

fail to do so due to a genuine lack of knowledge about the attribute under study.

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Verbal Protocols

• A Verbal protocol is a method of understanding the thought processes of a consumer by having them speak every thought which comes into their head, no matter

what it may be. The objective is to understand the thought processes of the consumer.

• Protocols are useful when a researcher wants to know the consumer's cognitive responses to marketing stimuli.

Protocols have been used to determine the attributes and cues used in making purchase decisions, product usage behaviour, and the impact of the shopping environment

on consumer decisions.

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Criteria Used to Evaluate a Multi Item Scale

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What Is To Be Measured?

• The first question the researcher must ask is "What is to be measured?". This is not as simple a question as it may

at first seem. • A precise definition of the concept may require a

description of how it will be measured, and there is frequently more than one way of measuring a concept.

Further, true measurement of concepts requires a process of precisely assigning scores or numbers to the attributes

of people or objects. • To have precise measurement in marketing research requires a careful conceptual definition, an operational

definition, and a system of consistent rules for assigning numbers or scales.

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Concepts 

• Before the measurement process can occur, the researcher has to identify and define the concepts

relevant to the problem. • A concept (or construct) is a generalised idea about a

class of objects, attributes, occurrences, or processes. • Concepts such as brand loyalty, personality, and so on

present great problems in terms of definition and measurement.

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Operational Definitions

• Concepts must be made operational in order to be measured. An operational definition gives meaning

to a concept by specifying the activities or operations necessary to measure it.

• It specifies what the investigator must do to measure the concept under investigation.

• An operational definition tells the investigator to "do such-and-such in so-and-so manner.".

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Rules of Measurement

• A rule is a guide instructing us what to do. An example of a measurement rule might be "assign the numerals 1 through 7 to individuals according to how

brand loyal they are. • If the individual is an extremely brand loyal

individual, assign a 1. If the individual is a total brand switcher with no brand loyalty, assign a 7."

• Operational definitions help the researcher specify the rules for assigning numbers.

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Index Measures

• Measuring more complex concepts may require more than one question because the concept has several attributes. An attribute is a single

characteristic or fundamental feature pertaining to an object, person, situation, or issue.

• Multi-itemed instruments for measuring a single concept with several attributes are called index measures, or composite measures.

• For example, index of social class may be based on three weighted averages: residence, occupation, and residence. Asking different questions in order to measure the same concept provides a more accurate cumulative

measure than does a single-item measure.

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Measurement accuracy

• This refers to capturing the responses as the respondent intended them to be understood.

• Errors can result from either systematic error, which affects the observed score in the same way on every

measurement, or random error, which varies with every measurement.

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Reliability:  

• Reliability refers to the extent to which a scale produces consistent results if repeated measurements are made on

the characteristic. • Another dimension of reliability concerns the

homogeneity of the measure. An attempt to measure an attitude may require asking several questions or a battery

of scale items. • To measure the internal consistency of a multiple-item measure, scores on subsets of items within the scale must be correlated. The split-half method, when a researcher

checks the results of one half of the scale items to the other half, is the most basic method for checking internal

consistency.

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Validity:  

• Validity refers to the accuracy of measurement.

• Validity of a scale may be defined as the extent to which differences in observed scale scores reflect true differences among objects on the characteristic being measured, rather than systematic or random errors.

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How is Validity Measured?

• The purpose of measurement is to measure what we intend to measure. Validity addresses the problem of whether or not a measure does indeed measure what it

purports to measure; if it does not, there will be problems.

• Researchers attempt to provide some evidence of a measure's degree of validity. There are three basic

approaches to dealing with the issue of validity:

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Face or content validity 

• This refers to the subjective agreement of professionals that a scale logically appears to be accurately reflecting what it purports to measure.

• A subjective evaluation by experts in the domain being studied to determine if all relevant items are covered in the study. Thus, in the auto industry for example, car experts (experienced professionals, professors, etc.) would evaluate the scale on the

items it covers vis-à-vis what they consider relevant real world factors.

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Criterion validity 

• Criterion validity is an attempt by researchers to answer the question "Does my measure correlate with other

measures of the same construct?" • Consider the physical concept of length. If a new measure of length were developed, finding that the new measure correlated with other measures of length would

provide some assurance that the measure was valid. • Criterion validity may be classified as either concurrent

validity (when the measure is taken at the same time as the criterion measure) or predictive validity (when the

measure predicts a future event).

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Construct validity 

• Construct validity is established by the degree to which the measure confirms a network of related hypotheses

generated from a theory based on the concept.

• In its simplest form, if the measure behaves the way it is supposed to in a pattern of inter-correlation with a variety

of other variables, then there is evidence for construct validity.

• This is a complex method of establishing validity and is of less concern to the applied researcher than to the basic

researcher.

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Construct Validity

• Construct Validity entails a theoretical investigation of the construct the scale is measuring.

• It tries to assess why the scale works and the nature of the theory underlying the scale.

• Convergent, discriminant, and nomological validity are assessed.

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Reliability versus Validity

• The concepts of reliability and validity should be compared. Reliability, although necessary for

validity, is not in itself sufficient.

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Sensitivity

• The sensitivity of a scale is important, particularly when changes in attitude, or other hypothetical constructs, are

under investigation. • Sensitivity refers to the ability of a instrument to accurately measure variability in stimuli or responses.

• The sensitivity of a scale which is based on a single question or a single item can be increased by adding

additional questions or items. • In other words, because index measures allow for a greater range of possible scores, they are more sensitive

than single-item scales.

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Ranking

• Buyers often rank order their preferences. An ordinal scale may be developed by asking respondents to rank order (from most preferred

to least preferred) a set of objects or attributes. This technique is easily understood by the respondents.

• Paired comparisons: In paired comparisons the respondents are presented with two objects at a time and asked to pick the one they

prefer. • Ranking objects with respect to one attribute is not difficult if only a

few products are compared, but as the number of items increases, the number of comparisons increases geometrically (n*(n - 1)12). If the number of comparisons is too great, respondents may fatigue and no

longer carefully discriminate among them.

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Sorting

• Sorting tasks requires that respondents indicate their attitudes or beliefs by ranking items.

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Generalisability

• This refers to the extent to which one can generalise from the observations at hand to the set of all

conditions of measurement over which the investigator wishes to generalise, called the universe

of generalisation.

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Randomised Response Questions

• In special cases, when respondents are asked to provide sensitive or embarrassing information in a survey, the researcher may utilise

randomised response questions. In this type of questionnaire, each question has two possible questions associated with it-one sensitive and

one non-sensitive. • The respondent will answer "yes" or "no" to the question asked. 'The

question asked is randomly selected by the respondent, who confidentially determines which of the two questions will be answered

(e.g., by the toss of a coin). • A formula is used to estimate the proportion of "yes" answers to the

sensitive question. While estimates are subject to error, the respondent remains anonymous, and response bias is therefore reduced.

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END

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• For more information about MAANZ International and articles about Marketing, visit:

• www.marketing.org.au• http://smartamarketing.wordpress.com• http://smartamarketing2.wordpress.com

• .  http://www.linkedin.com/groups/MAANZ‐SmartaMarketing‐Group‐2650856/about

• Email: info@marketing.org.au

• Link to this site ‐ ‐ http://www.slideshare.net/bmonger for further presentations

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