Technological University of the Philippines

College of Industrial Technology

Mechanical Engineering Technology

MEMBERS

John Ephraim C. FereiraJayson GonzalesShane GutierrezJerry GuecoJomari MenesRovin MagayReinier Karl Montas

FORMING PROCESS

RollingExtrusionShearingSpinningDeep DrawingForging

Rolling

Schematic drawing of rollingrolling

Cold rolling

Hot rolling

Iron and steelThe earliest rolling mills were slitting mills,

which were introduced from what is now Belgium to England in 1590. These passed flat bars between rolls to form a plate of iron, which was then passed between grooved rolls (slitters) to produce rods of iron. The first experiments at rolling iron for tinplate took place about 1670. In 1697, Major John Hanbury erected a mill at Pontypool to roll 'Pontypool plates'—black plate. Later this began to be rerolled and tinned to make tinplate. The earlier production of plate iron in Europe had been in forges, not rolling mills

History

The slitting mill was adapted to producing hoops (for barrels) and iron with a half-round or other sections by means that were the subject of two patents of c. 1679.[

citation needed]

Some of the earliest literature on rolling mills can be traced back to Christopher Polhem in 1761 in Patriotista Testamente, where he mentions rolling mills for both plate and bar iron.[14] He also explains how rolling mills can save on time and labor because a rolling mill can produce 10 to 20 and still more bars at the same time which is wanted to tilt only one bar with a hammer.[citation needed]

A patent was granted to Thomas Blockley of England in 1759 for the polishing and rolling of metals. Another patent was granted in 1766 to Richard Ford of England for the first tandem mill.[15] A tandem mill is one in which the metal is rolled in successive stands; Ford’s tandem mill was for hot rolling of wire rods.

In rolling , material is passed through the gap between two rotating rollers that squeeze the material as it passes between them. The rolled material emerges with a thickness roughly equal to the gap between the rollers. When the rollers are cylindrical, rolling produces material in the form of plate or sheet. Sheet steel and aluminium for the bodies of cars and domestic appliances is made this way. Rolled sheet is often termed a ‘semifinished’ product, as it requires further processing to shape it into the final product.

Rolling

Rolling is not restricted to flat sheets, though. If the desired product has a contoured surface, then by using profiled rollers the contour can be rolled on. If the surface pattern needs to be deeper than is possible during one rolling pass then multiple rollers can be used; for example, railway tracks are made by rolling between pairs of progressively deeper contoured rollers. The various stages for rails are shown in Figure 33.

Figure 33: Stages in rolling railway track

Figure 30: Extrusion bridge die making a hollow section product. Note that in the picture the die has been split to show the material passing through it. In reality, the die and the ring fit together, with a gap for the extruded material to flow through

In common with other forming processes, metals may be hot or cold rolled. The significant differences between hot and cold rolling are in the amount of energy needed to roll a given volume of material and in the resulting microstructures. The cooler the metal, the higher its yield stress and the more energy has to be supplied in order to shape it. As in extrusion, metals in large lumps are often hot rolled at homologous temperatures above 0.6. At this temperature the yield stress and work hardening are reduced. Railway lines require hot rolling in order to achieve the large change in shape from a rectangular bar. However, a major disadvantage of hot rolling is that the surface of the material becomes oxidised by the air, resulting in a poor surface finish.

If the metal is ductile then it may be cold rolled using smaller strains. This has some advantages: the work hardening at these temperatures can give the product a useful increase in strength. During cold rolling, oxidation is reduced and a good surface finish can be produced by using polished rollers. So, cold rolling is a good finishing treatment in the production of plate and sheet. The sheets of steel for car bodies are finished by cold rolling because a good surface finish is essential in this product.

Extrusion

Extruded Aluminums

The process begins by heating the stock material (for hot or warm extrusion). It is then loaded into the container in the press. A dummy block is placed behind it where the ram then presses on the material to push it out of the die. Afterward the extrusion is stretched in order to straighten it. If better properties are required then it may be heat treated or cold worked.

In 1797, Joseph Bramah patented the first extrusion process for making lead pipe. It involved preheating the metal and then forcing it through a die via a hand driven plunger. The process wasn't developed until 1820 when Thomas Burr constructed the first hydraulic powered press. At this time the process was called squirting. In 1894, Alexander Dick expanded the extrusion process to copper and brass alloys.

History

is a process used to create objects of a fixed cross-sectional profile. A material is pushed or drawn through a die of the desired cross-section. The two main advantages of this process over other manufacturing processes are its ability to create very complex cross-sections and work materials that are brittle, because the material only encounters compressive and shear stresses. It also forms finished parts with an excellent surface finish.[1]

Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing indefinitely long material) or semi-continuous (producing many pieces). The extrusion process can be done with the material hot or cold.

The principle of this process is very similar to squeezing toothpaste from a tube. Material is forced through a shaped hollow die in such a way that it is plastically deformed and takes up the shape of the die. The hole in the die can have almost any shape, so if the die is circular, for example, a wire or rod is produced (Figure 29).

The principle of this process is very similar to squeezing toothpaste from a tube. Material is forced through a shaped hollow die in such a way that it is plastically deformed and takes up the shape of the die. The hole in the die can have almost any shape, so if the die is circular, for example, a wire or rod is produced (Figure 29).

Extrusion can be used on most materials that can plastically flow as a solid, and solid metals and alloys are frequently extruded. To reduce the stresses required, and therefore the size and cost of the extrusion machine, and also to ensure hot working conditions, a metal is usually extruded at a high homologous temperature, usually between 0.65 and 0.9. This allows large changes in the shape of the material – and hence large strains – without fracture. During metal extrusion the raw material in the form of a metal ingot, known as the billet, is heated and pushed through the die by a simple sliding piston or ram.

The mechanism for extruding thermoplastics is illustrated in Figure 31. In this case a rotating screw is used to transfer the raw material in the form of granules through a heated cylinder to the die, just like in the case of injection moulding for polymers. The thermoplastic granules are compressed and mixed by the screw (the granules may contain a second constituent such as colouring). The material softens and melts as the temperature rises due to heating through the walls of the cylinder, and also from the heat generated within the thermoplastic as it is sheared by the screw. The thermoplastic flows through the die and emerges with a constant cross section in the shape of the die aperture. An almost infinite variety of cross-sectional shapes can be produced.

forging

History

Forging is one of the oldest known metalworking processes.

Traditionaly, forging was performed by a smith using hammer and anvil, and though the use of water power in the production and working of iron dates to the 12th century, the hammer and the anvil are not obsolete.

Advantages and disadvantages

Forging can produce a piece that is stronger than an equivalent cast or machined part. As the metal is shaped during the forging process, its internal grain deforms to follow the general shape of the part. As a result, the grain is continuous throughout the part, giving rise to a piece with improved strength characteristics.

TemperatureAll the following forging processes can

be performed at various temperatures, however they are generally classified by whether the metal temperature is above or below recrystallization temperature.

If the temperature is above the material’s recrystallization temperature it is deemed hot forging; if the temperature is below the material’s recrystallization temperature but above 3/10ths of the recrystallization temperature (on an absolute scale) it ts deemed warm forging; if below 3/10ths of the recrytallization temperature ( usually room temperature) then it is deemed cold forging.

The main advantage of hot forging is that as the metal deformed work hardening effects are negated by the recrystallization process.

Cold forging typically results in work hardening of the piece

ProcessesThere are many different kinds of forging

processes available, however they can be grouped into three main classes:

Drawn out: length increases, cross-section decreases

Upset: length decreases, cross-section increases

Squeezed in closed compression dies: produces multidirectional flow

Common Forging process:Roll forging, swaging, cogging,

open-die forging, impression die forging, automatic hot forging and upsetting.

Drop forging drop forging is a forging process where a hammer is raised up and then dropped onto the workpiece to deform it according to the shape of the die.

There are two types of drop forging:

Open-die forging and closed-die forging. As the names imply, the difference is in the shape of the die, with the former not fully enclosing the workpiece, while the latter does.

Press forging

Press forging works by slowly applying a continuous pressure or force, which differs from the near-instantaneous impact of drop-hammer forging.

The amount of Time the dies are in contact with the workpiece is measured in seconds (as compared to the milliseconds of drop-hammer forges). The

pres forging operation can be done either cold or hot.

The main advantage of press forging, as compared to drop-hammer forging, is its ability to deform the complete workpiece. Drop-hammer usually only deforms the surface of the workpiece in contact with the hammer and anvil; the interior of the workpiece will stay relatively undeformed.

Upset forging

Upset forging increases the diameter of the workpiece by compressing its length. Based on the number of piece produced this is

the most widely used forging process. A few examples of common parts produced using the upset forging process are

Couplings Engine valves

ScrewsBolts

Upset forging is usually done in special high speed machines called crank presses, but upsetting can also be done in a vertical crank press or a hydraulic press. The machines are usually set up to work in the horizontal plane, to facilitate the quick exchange of workpieces from a station to the next. The initial workpiece is usually wire rod, but some machine can accept bars up to 25cm (9.8in) in diameter and a capacity of over 1000tons. The standard upsetting machine employs split dies that contain multiple captives

The dies open enough to allow the workpiece to move from one cavity tothe next; the dies then close and the heading tool, or ram then moves longitudinally against thebar, upsetting it into the cavity. If all of the cavities are utilized on every cycle then a

finished part will be produced with every cycle, which is why this process is ideal for mass production.

The following rules must be followed when designing parts to be upset forged:

The length of unsupported metal that can be upset in one blow without injurious buckling should be limited to three times the diameter of the bar.

Lengths of stock greater than three times the diameter may be upset successfully provided that the diameter of the upset is not more than 1.5 times the diameter of the stock

In an upset requiring stock length greater than three times the diameter of the stock, and where the diameter of the cavity is not more than 1.5 times the diameter of the stock, the length of unsupported metal beyond the face of the die must not exceed the diameter of the bar.

Automatic hot forging

automatic hot forging process involves feeding mill-length steel bars (typically 7m / 23ft long) into one end of the machine at a room temperature and hot forged products emerge from the other end. This all occurs very quickly; small parts can be made at rate of 180 parts per minute (ppm) and larger can be made at a rate of 90ppm. The parts can be solid or hallow, round or symmetrical, up to 6 kg (13lb), and up to 18cm (7.1in) in diameter.

The main advantages to this process are its high output rate and ability to accept low cost materials. Little labor is required to operate the machinery. The final product is consistent 1,050°C (1,920°F) so air cooling will result in a part that is still easily machined. Tool life is doubled that of conventional forging because contact times are on the order of 6/100 of a second.

The process starts by heating up the bar 1,200 to 1,300°C (2,192 to 2,372°F) in less than 60 seconds using high power induction coils. It is then descaled with rollers, sheared into blanks, and transferred several successive forming stages, during which it is upset, performed, final forged, and pierced (if necessary). This process can also be couple with high speed cold forming operations. Examples of parts made by this process are:

Tra Wheel hub bearing

unit

Transmission gears

Tapered roller bearing stainless steel flanges

coupling neck rings for LP gas

cylinders

Roll forging

Roll forging is a process where round or flat bar stock is reduced in thickness and increased in length. Roll forging is

performed using two cylindrical or semi- cylindrical rolls, each containing one or more shaped grooves.

A heated bar is inserted

into the rolls and when it hits a stop, the rolls rotate and the bar is progressively shaped as it is rolled out of the machine.

The workpiece is then transferred to the next set of grooves or turned around and reinserted into the same grooves. This continues until the desired shape and size achieved. The advantage of this is there is no flash and it imparts a favorable grain structure into the workpiece.

Spinning

Spinning is used to make tubular(axis-symmetric) parts by fixing a piece of sheet stock to a rotating form (mandrel). Rollers or rigid tools press the stock against the form, stretching it, until the stock takes the shape of the form. Spinning is used to make rocket motor casings, missile nose cones, satellite dishes and metal kitchen funnels.

is the process of forming a circular shape e.g. a cone, hemisphere, deep cup, etc. from a disc of sheet material by forcing it against a shaped former as the disc and former are rotated.   The mandrel is held on the drive headstock spindle.  The forcing tool is controlled either manually or using an electohydraulic drive system.

Before the 1950s, spinning was performed on a simple turning lathe. When new technologies were introduced to the field of metal spinning and powered dedicated spinning machines were available, shear forming started its development in Sweden.

The process brings low capital-investment, tooling and energy costs; short setup times; quick and inexpensive adaptation of tooling and methods to accommodate design changes; and ability to carry out other operations such as beading, profiling, trimming and turning in the same production cycle with one setup. Forming forces are appreciably lower than competing processes due to localized working.

Benefits

Shear forming and conventional spinning are being used less than other manufacturing processes such as deep drawing and ironing. Being able to achieve almost net shape, thin sectioned parts, makes spinning a versatile process used widely in the production of lightweight items. Other advantages of shear spinning include the good mechanical properties of the final item and a very good surface finish.

Typical components produced by mechanically powered spinning machines include rocket nose cones, gas turbine engine and dish aerials.

Importance of Shear Forming or Spinning Operations in Manufacturing

Shearing is a metal fabricating process used to cut straight lines on flat metal stock. During the shearing process, an upper blade and a lower blade are forced past each other with the space between them determined by a required offset. Normally, one of the blades remains stationary.

Shearing

Typically, the upper shear blade is mounted at an angle to the lower blade that is normally mounted horizontally. The shearing process performs only fundamental straight-line cutting but any geometrical shape with a straight line cut can usually be produced on a shear.

Characteristics of Shearing Process

Its ability to make straight-line cuts on flat sheet stock

Metal placement between an upper and lower shear blades

Its trademark production of burred and slightly deformed metal edges

Its ability to cut relatively small lengths of material at any time since the shearing blades can be mounted at an angle to reduce the necessary shearing force required.

Materials Commonly Sheared- Aluminum

- Brass- Bronze- Mild steel- Stainless steel

Sheet metal and plate using a squaring or bow tie shear

Angle materials using and angle shear, and Bar stock using a bar shear.

The Shearing Process uses Three Types of Tool systems. They are used for Shearing:

Deep Drawing

is a sheet metal forming process in which a sheet metal blank is radially drawn into a forming die by the mechanical action of a punch.[1] It is thus a shape transformation process with material retention. The process is considered "deep" drawing when the depth of the drawn part exceeds its diameter. This is achieved by redrawing the part through a series of dies. The flange region (sheet metal in the die shoulder area) experiences a radial drawing stress and a tangential compressive stress due to the material retention property. These compressive stresses (hoop stresses) result in flange wrinkles (wrinkles of the first order). Wrinkles can be prevented by using a blank holder, the function of which is to facilitate controlled material flow into the die radius.

The important features of deep drawing are shown in the figure below.   The pressure ring bears on the upper surface of the blank preventing wrinkling of the metal as it is drawn radially over the upper surface of the die.  There is the option of applying pressure to the base of the cup using a pressure pad.   Thinning results from this process, the worst being at the bottom radius as a result of drawing the full disc diameter inward under the pressure ring.  The thinning is the least at the top of the cup

If the deep drawing process can not produce a cup sufficiently deep in one operation then it is possible to split the operation into a number of stages.   Also a redrawing operation is used.  The drawing process results in work hardening and therefore the component may need to be bright annealed between drawing operations.  The redrawing operation is shown in the figure below.   The indirect redrawing operation has the advantage over the direct one in that the material bending is all in one direction i.e. there is no bending-unbending ( as occurs in the direct method).

Punches and dies are typically made of tool steel, however carbon steel is cheaper, but not as hard and is therefore used in less severe applications, it is also common to see cemented carbides used where high wear and abrasive resistance is present. Alloy steels are normally used for the ejector system to kick the part out and in durable and heat resistant blankholders.[

Tool materials

Deep drawing has been classified into conventional and unconventional deep drawing. The main aim of any unconventional deep drawing process is to extend the formability limits of the process. Some of the unconventional processes include hydromechanical deep drawing, Hydroform process, Aquadraw process, Guerin process, Marform process and the hydraulic deep drawing process to name a few.

Variations

Example of Deep Drawn Part

Example of Deep Drawn line