Biodiversity 2009

BIODIVERSITY AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

Madoffe, S.S.Tailored for

3rd Year BSc WLM 2007

Introductiono Living organisms and reliance on the envo The world’s bd made up of mi of spp o Species and environmental adaptationo All species depend on one another- directly or

indirectly for their survival o Recently more env degradation ever than

beforeo Humans and the role on the future of the Eartho Conflicts btn Resource Utilization and Cons

LEAD TO:Debate on Biodiversity

Why conflicts over bd use?

Different interest groups at: local(medicinal), national (water catchment) and International (Carbon sequestration)

Awareness on bd and measures to reduce losses

CONCEPT OF BIODIVERSITY

Existence of many speciesNeed to identify them – Estimates only

Identification difficult – WHY?

Table 1. Estimated number of individual species in thousands

CATEGORYESTIMATED NUMBERS (THOUSANDS)

IDENTIFIED UNIDENTIFIED

ALGAE 50 350

ARACHNIDAE 45 550

CRUSTACEANS 50 150

FUNGI 40 1,360

INSECTS 1,000 1,400

MOLLUSCUS 250 100

NEMATODES 45 455

PLANTS 500 100

PROTOZOA 100 160

VERTEBRATES 150 0

OTHERS 240 260

EXTINCTION OF SPECIES

o Species extinction as natural phenomenono Role of human on spp extinctiono Do we know how many spp have

disappeared?o Spp extinction and documentationo Have we overdrawn our account? o Status of Global forest o Examples from EAMs and Amazono Protect what protects us

BD &BIOLOGICAL RESOURCES

o Biodiversity buzzword for the 1990's,

o Concern over bd is not new.o BD = Contraction of Biological

diversity. o Biodiversity variety of life

forms ORo Variety and variability among

living organisms

LEVELS OF BIODIVERSITY

Three fundamental levels Genetic diversity: Species diversity Ecosystem diversity

Main gradients of terrestrial diversity

Diversity increases from: Latitudinal gradients:

Increase Poles – equator Elevation gradients:

Increases with altitude. Precipitation gradients Others include: Nutrient

levels, Salinity gradients and Island

TROPICAL BIODIVERSITY

AN OVERVIEW Very high bd:- spp, habitats,

ecosystems Spp richness depends on RTH. About 2/3 of all spp occur in tropics Tropical humid forests 14-18 mi. km2 Today shrinkage 1 mi. km2 every 5 -

10 yrs.

EA a Mega-biodiversity Region

Due to: Biogeographic diversity Diversity of the land-form from Patterns of geological change History of ethnic/cultural diversity

Uses of Biodiversity

Direct use Consumptive Commercial Indirect values

Maintain water cycles Climate regeneration Storage and cycling of essential nutrients Photosynthesis etc

These values: could be looked at: International, National, or local.

AGRICULTURAL VALUES OF BIODIVERSITY

Genetic resources - rapid growth, high yield, pest resistance etc

Crossing of cultivated species and their wild relatives

Variety of gemplasm e.g. dry land cereals: millet,

Wild species of cropping potential for agriculture/livestock

Biodiversity hotspots

What are hotspots? High diversity of endemic spp and

threatened Support 1,500 endemic plant species,

0.5%t of the global total Plant diversity is the biological basis

for hotspot designation WHY? Diversity of endemic vertebrates in

hotspot regions is also extraordinarily high

BD hotspot cont.

There are 34 regions of biodiversity hotspots worldwide

Examples: Madagascar, The tropical Andes, Mediterranean region, Mesoamerica, the Caribbean, Indo Burma etc

In EA we have EAMs and Coastal forests of Kn and Tz

What are endemic species?

Highly restricted organisms example

Saint paulia (African violet), Usambara eagle owl, Uluguru violet-backed sunbird.

Why are there endemic species?

Evolutionary history and respond to the environment they inhabit.

Their ecological requirements are only met over a small area and

They are not capable of dispersing great distances to other suitable habitats.

Why do hotspots have many endemic species?

Many of the world's hotspots are islands WHY?.

Isolation over long periods of geologic time

Benign environments - greatest diversity of ecosystems

Isolate benign environments

Why are hotspots threatened?

Island nature - Often unprepared to compete with the introduced and exotic species

They are ecologically "naive." – due to evolutionary history

Threats by humans - logging, slash and burn, mining etc

Hotspots conservation

Pre-requisite Relies on scientific evaluations of

the threatened status of species. Determining priority areas for

conservation Set conservation priorities on the

basis of resources and importance of the area

Hotspots can be evaluated in terms of:

Their unique biodiversity The amount of habitat lost and

protected, and The number of endemic species in a

small area

Some conservation approaches

The establishment of traditional PAs Implementation innovative

economic alternatives Influencing the behaviour of the

locals Working with international corporations

Employ scientific, economic, policy, and education tools to create effective conservation strategies.

Monitoring hotspots

Aim: Implement programs and strategies that are effective at protecting bd

Hotspots are dynamic places Need to monitor them on what has

already happened Anticipate what might happen,

based on what has happened before

Monitoring done through

Understanding the situation in these areas e.g.

Patterns of biodiversity Which spp are concentrated in which

places? Factors contributing to biodiversity loss How is biodiversity changing over time?

Different ways of monitoring: Permanent sample plots, remotes sensing etc

Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests of East Africa

The Eastern Arc Mountains and Coastal Forests hotspot (Fig. 1)

Stretches along most of the eastern coast of Tanzania and into extreme SE Kenya.

The hotspot extends more than 400 km Comprises only 0.1% of tropical Africa's land

area yet contains 13% of the entire continent's

vascular plants.

The EAMs of EA

Threats to EAMs

Fire Illegal logging and pole extraction Encroachment for Agricultural

development and settlement Human population pressures also

threaten the remaining forests Alien invasive species

Fire in lowland adjacent to EAMs

Cons of EAMs and Coastal forests

What are the current conservation initiatives taken by both Tz government and International institutions?

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY

The rate of species extinction is higher today than ever before

In spite of this there are more species to date on earth than ever before.

BD loss and environmental degradation is a result of humanity + natural

A: Socio-economic context of Biodiversity loss

i) Poverty ii) Loss of Traditional Knowledge iii) Population dynamics Consider : Migrations by people and

livestock Urbanization Refugees in small area

iv) Poor agricultural practices

Extensive and shifting cultivation Indiscriminate use of fire Cultivation on slopes – lead to soil

erosion Monocultural farming Over-grazing Dilemma of pushing pastoralists to

marginal areas

v) Pollution

Agro-chemicals (pesticides, and chemical fertilizers)

Mining lead to degradation, water pollution and disturbance of wildlife.

Traffic.

vi) Energy Crisis

Bio-energy use is about 92% Petroleum 7.2%, and electricity

0.8%

vii) Tourism What are main tourism related

problems?

2. Ecological aspects of BD loss

i) Invasive speciesii) Aforestation and deforestation

Examples of some threats to biodiversity in Tanzania

i) Ecological isolation of protected areas

Tarangire NP is isolated from lake Manyara NP

Uluguru as an ecological islands Ref. Island biogeography theory

ii) Fragmentation of protected areas

Due to: logging, mining, construction e.g. Ruvu F.R., Selous (TAZARA).

Fragmentation: Reduces the effective habital areas Divides plant and animal pops into

smaller isolated pops that become viable to local extinction

Creates gaps barriers for dispersal and migration of animals and plants.

iii) Food and timber production methods

Change from subsistence agriculture - industrial agriculture

Clearing natural forests for industrial forest plantations

WHY is industrial farming not sustainable in tropical Africa?

iv) Invasive exotics into protected areas

What’s an Invasive species? What’s   Alien invasive species?

Factors contributing to the introduction and spread of alien species

Human mobility. Economic and trade Climate change Conflict and construction Tourism Biological control of pests Forest/ecosystem disturbance

Examples of Alien invasive spp in EA

Nile perch (Lates niloticus) Maesopsis eminii Acacia mearnsii Lantana camara Senna spectabilis Indian house crow

Alien invasive species

Maesopsis eminii in the E. Usambaras

Lantana camara

Impacts of Invasive species

Can reduce the quality of the forest Sometimes they can eliminate native spp Sometimes invaders brings its diseases or

parasites Sometimes they interbreed - thus eroding

native gene diversity Sometimes exotics out-compete natives

for an essential resource They exert a price.

How can we protect our PAs from notorious invasives?

Quarantine Planned imports and releases of exotics Importers to accept liability for damages Govt determine ecological effects of new

spp International co-operation Adopt a general policy on use of native

species

Control/Elimination of invasive species

Mechanical Control Chemical Control by pesticides Biological Control Ecosystem Manipulation Integrated Management

V: Over-exploitation of plants and animals

Over-exploitation of plants and animals like deforestation could result in:

Habitat destruction and modification, Examples:

Charcoal burning Excessive harvesting of animals e.g.

elephants, rhinos

Land clearing

Illegal logging/Mining

VI: Foreign debt serving

High levels of foreign debt, has put pressure on governments to engage in a variety of agricultural and industrial practices

e.g Hunting block e.g. in Loliondo Mining in Lake Zone could endanger

some species - WHY?

ENVIRONMENT AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT

What is Environment? Environment overlapping

phenomenon: physical, biological, anthropic, and resource generating in nature. Humans use Resources and could

be renewable or non-renewable

What is a resource

Resource implies something which:Can be used to satisfy human

needs.Some technology to extract and

transform it to a usable form Must be a demand for that product.

Impacts of Environmental degradation

Loss of bd has significant impact on environment

Development activities could have impact on the environment

Impacts

Local impacts Consider impact of tree fall or animal

killed in a tropical forest National, regional and global impacts Effects of Uluguru Mt forests and water

resources in Dar River Nile and Niger Deforestation in the LCD and industrial

pollution in DC on C build-up.

Relationship Environment and bd

Env and bd are cross-sectorial issues BD are therefore housed in

environmental agencies, e.g Environmental degradation increase

GHGs, soil erosion etc which impact on biodiversity

Solution to environmental problems is thus solutions to biodiversity issues

SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (SD)

The Concept of SD and its implications

Development Environment led to the concept of SD

SD now a central concept in environmental policies of many countries.

Concept of SD cont.

Several defs, however, balancing the fulfillment of human needs with the protection of NE so that these needs can be met now and future

SD has to be:environmentally friendlytechnically appropriate,economically viable and socially acceptable

Sustainable Agriculture

Agriculture is sustainable if it provide:

Enough food Employment, Better income and Conserve NR and protect the

environment.

Requirements for sustainable development

Right Policy for effective citizen participation Conducive economic system Friendly social system with less conflicts Environmentally friendly production system International system that fosters sustainable

patterns of trade and finance Administrative system that is flexible and

has the capacity for self-correction

How to achieve sustainable development

i) Conservation and development – hand in hand

ii) Holistic Integration in: land use; traditional and modern systems & technology

iii) Cropping/animal production systems iv) Alternative energy systems v) Monitoring of resources and environment

vi) Education, training, and orientation

priorities

Challenges in Sustainable Development

Time-horizon of development The principle of the free market

mechanism Trickle-down process from the

developed countries Liberalization and an increase in

North-South trade and aid cooperation

Constraints on SD in Sub-Saharan Africa

General constraints Political constraints Socio-economic constraints Technological constraints Specific or sectoral constraints

Agriculture Industrial development Mineral industry development

Roles of BD in Sustainable Agricultural Planning

Maintain diversified ecosystem around farms

Diversified cropping systems, and cultivars. Traditional activities-ecologically sound Use env friendly cropping & husbandry

practice Promoting sound economic valuation Promote community participation in

planning

ENVIRONMENTAL MOVEMENTS

• Popular from 1960's & 1970's DCs• Main concern human impact on env• 1960's concern, pesticides, pollution,

& population.• 1970's, concern resource depletion,

pop and poverty• Today, global conservation & wise

mang of NR for SD

Major International Environmental conference

UNCHE - Stockholm in 1972. WCED - 1986 -Brundtland Advocated world "SD" 1987,WCED "Our Common Future" Global env problems and measures to

solve them.

UNGA RESOLUTIONS

1989- Holistic approach to env & development

1992 Earth Summit on SD – Rio MAIN OTPUT AGENDA 21

AGENDA 21

Action Plan and Strategy of env & economic problems & solutions to the problems.

Remove differences btn N&S Global consensus and political

commitment Develop alternative and more

environmentally friendly ways of living. Aiming to achieve SD - "sustainable living"

INTERNATIONAL IMPLEMENTATION OF RIO COMMITMENTS

International conferences of 1990's

Establishment of legal, institutional and policy instruments

Mid-term assessment (1997) of Rio Resolutions

IMPLEMENTATION OF AGENDA 21 IN TANZANIA

◊ Ratified important international legal instruments – eg BD & Climate Change Conventions.

◊ Important legislations at national level – Forest policy, Land policy, etc

◊ Institutional arrangements like establishment of NEMC

◊ Policy documents e.g. Environment, Population, HIV/AIDS, PRSPs

CONSTRAINTS IN IMPLEMENTING AGENDA 21

High Incidence of Poverty Un-equal distribution of pop/economy HIV/AIDS and human health problems Other: extreme weather conditions,

negative effects of globalization etc

WORLD SUMMIT ON SD, JOBURG 2002 (WSSD)

Main changes after Rio Summit:Globalisation, Increased poverty,HIV/AIDS, Loss of bd etc

Rio was for commitments Joburg was to:

• Review progress of agenda 21 & • Map way forward towards global SD.

Key areas dedicated for the WSSD

Water, energy, Health, Agriculture and Biodiversity

To achieve SD in above areas we need:

Global Partnership e.g. NEPAD

Key Outcomes of the WSSD

SD central element of the international agenda

More Governments commitments on SD

Energy and sanitation issues More support to Africa and NEPAD Civil society were given prominence The concept of partnerships

BEYOND JOSBURG: FUTURE PERSPECTIVES FOR TANZANIA

Main focus: Inter-sectoral co-ordination and integration More emphasis on SD and poverty reduction

themes Harmonization and further development of

legal, policy and institutional arrangements Further action on HIV/AIDS and poverty, and

environmental degradation

WORLD CONSERVATION STRATEGY

What is conservation? History of Conservation

e.g. Greeks and Romans Motivations for conservation in

Africa:Preserve game for colonial hunters Preserve for rituals (sacred forests)

CONSERVATION OBJECTIVES

Maintain essential ecological processes

Preserve genetic resources Ensure the sustainable utilisation of

species and ecosystems

WHY CONCERN ABOUT CONSERVATION

General Reduced ecosystem services Resources degradation particularly in

DCs due to poverty and struggle for food

Increased costs to produce goods and services

The resource base of major industries is shrinking

Other concerns: Global

Many living resources are shared Many living resources occur in areas

beyond national jurisdiction Living resources in one state may be

affected by activities done in another state

Main obstacles for conserving bd

Belief on living resources Failure to integrate conservation with

development Poor developmental planning Lack of a capacity to conserve Lack of support for conservation Wrong target conservation group

CONSERVATION AND MANG OF BD

Conservation to bd focus on: • Causes of losses• Opportunities for bd on SD

BD not equally distributed – Set conser priority Approaches in priority setting

biodiversity hotsports, major tropical wilderness and megadiversity countries.

Priority setting based on:

Importance of the BD to nation's survival

Distribution of BD Level of endemism Level of threat Availability of resources

Why Conservation of Natural forest and wildlife is a very challenging

High demand of this resource by the people.

Artificial regeneration very difficult and most of the species are under studied.

Little biological data for making precise cons recommendations

METHODS OF REDUCING BIODIVERSITY LOSSES

Respective and incorporate African values, knowledge systems, and priorities

Involving local people in conservation activities 

Biodiversity conservation systems

Methods cont.

Policies Education, Training and Networking Monitoring, Evaluation and Research

MILLENIUM DEVELOPMENT GOALSAND ENV. CONS

2000, 189 countries sign Millennium declaration

Focus on the declaration: Peace, security and disarmamentDevelopment and poverty reduction Protection of environmentHuman rights, democracy and good

governance

WHAT ARE THE MDGS?

Blueprint on devel & env - agreed by all world countries & all leading developing institutions to eradicate extreme poverty worldwide

Key target of MDGs – fight poverty through reduced loss of env resources by advocating bd conservation

Element of the MDGs

i) Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger Main sources of bd losses Particular attention to marginal areas BD main source of livelihood by poor Poor countries borrow from DCs and

they pay through bd utilization Strengthening rural income will

reduce BD losses

ii) Achieve universal primary education

Girls/women are main target Importance of women on bd

cons Role of UNV

iii) Promote gender equity and empower women

Women are the poorest yet they are main actors in bd cons

Empowerment will help in decision making, access to knowledge etc

Constraints of Women empowerment and participation in BD conservation

Traditions – women should not own land

Lack of ownership Little control of benefits from income Restricted in participation of social

welfare

Others

iv) Reduce child mortality v) Improve maternal health vi) Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and

other diseases vii) Ensure environmental

sustainability

viii) Develop global partnership for development

Open trade – non-discriminatory Assist to conserve rare species,

endangered etc Good governance reduce poverty Cancel debts etc

C: The Linkage of MDGs and BD conservation

Linkages btn MDG’s and BD cons exists but not well articulated!!

Consider poverty, diseases, education Vs Env conservation!!

Dangers of not understanding and accepting the linkage by politicians and technocrats

Could compromise conservation objectives

AND THEREFORE:

Stable env will therefore assist to achieve MDGs

Income from bd can reduce poverty

Income from BD cons can improve social services eg health, education etc

ECOLOGICAL DIVERSITY AND ITS MEASUREMENTS

Why ecologists interested in ecologicaldiversity and its measurement. Comprehending ecosystem structure

and function. Conserving and breeding. Monitoring important land

management interventions Set areas of priority for conser of bd

Objective of measuring BD

To provide baseline information on: distribution, richness and relative abundance of taxa that is

needed for conservation decisionNB: Biodiversity seen as indicators of the

wellbeing of ecological systems

How to measure diversity

Recording the number of species Describing their relative abundance or Combine the two components

POPULATION INDICES

Numerous diversity indices developed Indices seek to characterize the

diversity by a simple number. Two best known are Simpson’s Index Shannon’s

Simpson's Diversity Index

Used to quantify the bd of a habitat. Takes into account: the number of species present, and abundance of each species. 'Simpson's Diversity Index' refer to any

one of 3 closely related indices

i) Simpson's Index (D)

D = (n / N)2 n = the total no. of organisms of a

particular speciesN = the total no. of organisms of all species

The value of D ranges between 0 and 1 ii) Simpson's Index of Diversity 1 - D iii) Simpson's Reciprocal Index 1 / D

Measuring biodiversity

Diversity appears to be very simple and unambiguous concept.

Where then is the scope for so many competing indices?

Because diversity measures takes into account two factors.

Species richness – i.e. number of species Evenness (equitability)

Example of the above

Consider 4 sites A, B, C and D

Site A: - 1 species of moth Site B: - 3 species of moth

B is more diverse i.e. greater richness

Example cont.

Site C: 4 spp - @ moth sp has 3 individuals = 12

Site D: 4spp – one sp has 9 individuals, others (3 sp.) have 1 individual @ giving a total of 12 individuals

C & D have equal number of spp and individuals (12),

The greater evenness of C makes it more diverse

METHODS OF ASSESSING FOREST BIODIVERSITY

i)Traditional inventory analysis: Estimate of standing volume of

trees or animals in an area To determine changes with time

(e.g FHM) Could use permanent or temporary

sample plots

Methods cont.

ii) Remote Sensing: Include aerial photography and

satellite imageryCan not be used to identify

individual plant Can be used for mapping vegetation

(zonation) and land use planning

MORE READINGS ON:

GLOBOLIZATION AND ITS IMPACT TO BIODIVERSITY IN THE DEVELOPING COUNTRIES

GOOD LUCK