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UBEats (Universal BioMusic Education Achievement Tier in Science)
Created and Produced by
The University of North Carolina at Greensboro
and North Carolina State University
with funding from the National Science Foundation
UBEATSModUlE ovErviEw and PrEliMinary inforMation
Universal BioMusic Education Achievement Tier in Science
UBEatsBioMusic Curriculum for Elementary Grades 2/3 and 4/5
UBEATS is a BioMusic formal education initiative funded by the National Science Foundation
as a Discovery Research K-12 exploratory project.
The project is a collaboration of The University of North Carolina at Greensboro and
North Carolina State University.
ProjEct lEadErshiP
Dr. Patricia Gray, PI, Clinical Professor and Senior Research Scientist of BioMusic, The University of
North Carolina at Greensboro
Dr. Sarah Carrier, Co-PI, Assistant Professor, Elementary Science Methods, North Carolina State University
Dr. David J. Teachout, Co-PI, Associate Professor and Chair of the Music Education Department,
The University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Dr. Eric Wiebe, Co-PI, Associate Professor, Dept. of Mathematics, Science, and Technology Education,
College of Education, North Carolina State University
virtUal MEntors
Dr. Roger Payne, (whale songs) Ocean Alliance
Dr. Steve Nowicki, (bird songs) Duke University
Dr. Don Hodges, (music/brain) The University of North Carolina at Greensboro
Dr. Doug Quin, (bioacoustics) Syracuse University
Dr. Tecumseh Fitch, (animal communication) University of Vienna
advisors
Dr. John Bransford, PI, NSF-SLC LIFE Center, College of Education, University of Washington
Dr. Cynthia Williamson, Director, Curriculum, Instruction & Technology, North Carolina Dept.
of Public Instruction
Ms. Christie Ebert, Arts Education Consultant, North Carolina Dept. of Public Instruction
Dr. Sam Houston, North Carolina Science, Mathematics, and Technology Education Center,
Research Triangle Park
consUltants
Ms. Zebetta King, NC Science Teacher of the Year 2009
Mr. Philip Blackburn, composer and bioacoustician, American Composers Forum
doctoral rEsEarch fEllow
Ms. Cathy Scott, UBEATS Program Coordinator. Ph.D. candidate in Science Education, The University
of North Carolina at Greensboro
tEachEr-aUthors
Ms. Debra Hall, Kenan Fellow, Science Specialist, Bugg Creative Arts and Science Magnet School,
Wake County School System
Ms. Crystal Patillo, Kenan Fellow, Music Specialist, Bugg Creative Arts and Science Magnet School,
Wake County School System
Ms. Cathy Scott, UBEATS Fellow, Science Specialist, Ph.D. Candidate, University of North Carolina
at Greensboro
Ms. Christen Blanton, UBEATS Fellow, Music Specialist, St. Pius Elementary School, Greensboro, NC
Ms. Carmen Eby, UBEATS Fellow, Music Specialist, St. Pius Elementary School, Greensboro, NC
UBEATS ModUlE ovErviEw And PrEliMinAry inforMATion (i) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home
what is BioMUsic?
BioMusic is an interdisciplinary field—biology, animal
communication, ethnomusicology, music theory, neuroscience,
physics, bioacoustics, and evolutionary anthropology—that
studies how music’s biological and cognitive elements are
expressed in relationships and meaning-making in human and
non-human communication systems.
BioMusic is an outgrowth of the scientific concept of
biodiversity. Lead researchers in BioMusic initially worked
through the National Music Arts’ BioMusic Program at the
National Academy of Sciences and now are part of the Music
Research Institute (MRI) at the University of North Carolina
at Greensboro. BioMusic researchers have presented at the
American Association for the Advancement of Science (AAAS)
meetings and published articles in Science and other peer-
reviewed journals.
BioMusic research focuses on the underlying structures and
processes of human music-making as a communication system
and compares it with other animal communication systems.
(NOTE: In the BioMusic context, we use the term ‘music’ to mean
a complex system of communication based on sound, time, and
intentionality.) New research confirms human musicality is based
in genetics suggesting deep evolutionary roots (Science News
special edition, 2010; Zenter and Eerola, 2010). Key to exploring
the biological foundations of animal communication and human
music-making is understanding how manipulating time and
sound is grounded in the natural sciences.
BioMusic research studies the commonalities of musical
sounds in all species—in relations of sonic patterns, frequencies,
rhythms, volume, structures, and significance—and their role
in biodiversity. Current interdisciplinary research areas include
bird songs, whale songs, elephant songs, mice songs, music
perception in apes, human brain/music, prehistoric musical tool-
making, bioacoustics, nanotechnology, physics of sound, and
habitat soundscapes as bio-indicators.
BioMUsic EdUcation initiativEs
UBEATS (Universal BioMusic Education Achievement Tier in
Science) is a ‘science of music’ formal education curriculum for
elementary grades 2 to 5. UBEATS was developed over two-and-
a-half-years by The University of North Carolina at Greensboro
and North Carolina State University with funding from the
National Science Foundation. Two teams of in-service teachers
comprised of science teachers and music teachers developed
innovative modules for upper (i.e., 4th and 5th) and lower
elementary (i.e., 2nd and 3rd) grades that conform to national
science and music standards. The lessons feature inquiry-
based learning that builds science-processing skills through
investigations of the natural world’s musicality. The current
materials have gone through various iterations after two years
of testing in elementary classrooms across North Carolina.
Virtual Mentors include: Roger Payne, (whale songs)
Ocean Alliance; Steve Nowicki, (bird songs) Duke University;
Don Hodges, (music/brain) UNCG; Doug Quin, (bioacoustics)
Syracuse University; and Tecumseh Fitch, (animal communica-
tion) University of Vienna.
Advisors include: Dr. John Bransford, College of Education,
University of Washington; Dr. Cynthia Williamson, Director,
Curriculum, Instruction and Technology, North Carolina
Department of Public Instruction; Ms. Christie Ebert, Arts
Education Consultant, North Carolina Department of Public
Instruction; and Dr. Sam Houston, North Carolina Science,
Mathematics, and Technology Education Center, Research
Triangle Park.
Consultants include: Ms. Zebetta King, North Carolina Science
Teacher of the Year 2009; and Mr. Philip Blackburn, composer
and bioacoustician.
__________________________________________________________
wild Music: Sounds & Songs of life, is a BioMusic informal
science education project that includes a 4,000 square foot
science exhibition, public programs and website (www.
wildmusic.org). Wild Music, funded by the National Science
Foundation and Harman Industries, is a project of The University
of North Carolina at Greensboro, the Science Museum of
Minnesota, and the Association of Science Technology Centers,
Inc. Wild Music was guided by a prestigious international
multi-disciplinary board of science advisors (see website)
and includes institutional partners —Cornell Laboratory of
Ornithology, Johns Hopkins, Harvard, American Composer’s
Forum, and the Exploratorium. The exhibition provides a rich,
interactive environment that employs multisensory learning and
outstanding listening experiences. The exhibition is bi-lingual
and accessible to the visually impaired. Wild Music also includes
a website (www.wildmusic.org) that is an interactive, up-to-date
science information resource; a School Outreach Guide; and a
Compendium of Live Performance opportunities that provide
integrated musical experiences. Wild Music has been the
subject of the Association of Science and Technology Centers
Roundtables for Advancing the Profession; has presented public
programming in each host site featuring musicians of diverse
musical cultures and scientist-musicians; and has commissioned
new music by renowned naturalist/composer Steve Heitzig.
Wild Music and UBEATS share many of the same advisors and
consultants.
__________________________________________________________
UBEats wEBsitEs
UBEATS project description:
http://performingarts.uncg.edu/music-research-institute/
research-areas/biomusic/ubeats
For UBEATS educators:
https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home
www.wildmusic.org
UBEATS ModUlE ovErviEw And PrEliMinAry inforMATion (1) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home
UBEATS Modules consist of Science activities that allow
students to tell a story. The story narrative is based on the
scientific inquiry genre. That is, it has a formalized structure
based on scientific ways of thinking and expressing oneself.
The UBEATS Modules narrative is built around the inquiry cycle
as articulated in the National Science Education Standards. The
purpose of the narrative develops both enhanced conceptual
understanding of a particular science topic, but also develops
basic science process skills—scientific ways of thinking and doing.
The UBEATS Modules use the science notebook as a powerful
tool for organizing and recording this narrative.
The UBEATS Modules use some existing Lab activity kits that
provide resources for developing the narrative, but they are
not an end unto themselves and are not the central driver for
the activity.
The UBEATS Modules use reflective thought as central to the
module’s narrative and thread this practice throughout the
individual lesson plan’s activities. The lab work (i.e., equipment
setup and preparation, conducting the investigation, recording
the data) is not the majority of time spent on the activity. The
lab work is preceded by a development of what is known and
what is to be explored and is followed by a synthesis of the
findings, reflection back on what the initial goals were, and
where one would go next to find out more.
The UBEATS Modules assume that ‘All students can do
science.’ Both interests and core abilities mean that students’
narrative will vary in both their grasp of the science concepts
and process skills and in exactly how they express themselves.
UBEATS activities allow for these ranges, within the logistical
constraints of the classroom.
Goals and stratEGiEs
UBEATS incorporates BioMusic concepts into elementary math and science curricula and enables science and music
teachers to collaborate to teach students about biodiversity, physics of sound, animal communication, animal perception
and cognition, human evolution, and cultural diversity.
thE UBEats Basic assUMPtions and BEliEfs
UBEATS ModUlE ovErviEw And PrEliMinAry inforMATion (2) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home
UBEATS Modules consist of Music activities that allow students
to find affinities with others and the external world. The process
is based on perceiving musical structures in both sound and time
across human and other animal cultures. The use of innate human
music faculties is grounded in contexts of scientific inquiry and in
ways of creating alternate pathways of expression and meaning.
The UBEATS Modules exploration of music concepts and the
process of music-making supports the National Music Education
Standards. The purpose of the musical activities is to engage
in structured listening and doing that enhances conceptual
understanding of science and the process of music-making.
The UBEATS Modules use the creation and imitation of musical
structures across cultural and species’ lines as powerful tools for
engaging students in the process of meaning-making.
The UBEATS Modules use some existing music education
materials and recorded music that provide resources for
developing awareness of musical processes, but they are not an
end unto themselves and are not the central driver for the activity.
The UBEATS Modules build on an understanding of music-
making as the manipulation of sound/time for the co-creation
of meaning. Both perceptual and cognitive processes are
developed in wide-ranging settings to enable new analytical
skills and to support new creative approaches.
The UBEATS Modules assume that ‘All students can do music.’
Both interests and core abilities mean that students’ awareness
of the other will vary in both their grasp of the science and
music concepts and their process skills and in how they express
themselves. UBEATS activities allow for wide ranges of doing
music, within the constraints of the learning environment.
Science Music
National Science Education Standards
(K-8) ConTEnT STAndArd A: Abilities necessary to do scientific inquiry
• Understanding about scientific inquiry
• Employ simple equipment and tools to gather data and extend the senses
(K-4) ConTEnT STAndArd B: Physical Science
• Properties of objects and materials
• Position and motion of objects
• Light, heat, electricity, and magnetism
(K-4) ConTEnT STAndArd C: Life Science
• The characteristics of organisms
• Organisms and their environments
(5-8) ConTEnT STAndArd C: Life Science
• Structure and function in living systems
• Reproduction and heredity
• Regulation and behavior
• Populations and ecosystems
• Diversity and adaptations of organisms
(K-8) ConTEnT STAndArd E: Science and Technology
• Abilities of technological design
• Understanding about science and technology
• Abilities to distinguish between natural objects and objects made by humans
(K-8) ConTEnT STAndArd G: Science as a Human Endeavor
oPPortUnitiEs—how UBEats ModUlEs offEr nEw ways to EnhancE lEarninG
1. UBEATS modules focus on how the auditory system is used for observation and sense-making. They
focus on building Aural Skills as important observational tools and central to the development of
science process skills at the elementary level.
2. UBEATS modules offer opportunities for students to engage with sound analysis techniques and to invent
notational systems for recording aural observations. The curriculum encourages students to think about
how representing the data in words, graphics, numbers, etc. can help them further understand sonic
phenomena. Because a crucial part of direct and reflective science is the representation of data, auditory data
provides an opportunity to have students think about how one should represent these data initially and how it
can be re-represented. This is both valuable and different than what most science activities offer.
3. UBEATS Modules show that using symbols to capture auditory events enables students to develop analytical
skills and develop technology skills. Multiple ways of representing aural events and musical experiences
provide both scientific and cultural perspectives that offer important and diverse ways to access and reflect
upon information.
4. UBEATS Modules build on motivating and engaging students through their innate interests in music. In
addition to exploring the biological foundations of music-making, the modules explore how the properties of
sound and the structures of musical sounds are used in the natural world to communicate and are adapted for
human music-making.
5. UBEATS Modules use auditory data to more fully understand many scientific phenomena.
6. UBEATS Modules help build deep listening skills in combination with traditional music ear-training skills to
enable a better understanding of others.
7. UBEATS Modules’ auditory-based activities can potentially offer opportunities to ESL students (and other
students for whom language is a barrier) that are not available with activities that are heavily based on the
written and spoken word.
national MUsic and sciEncE EdUcation standards intEGratEd in UBEats ModUlEs
National Music Education Standards
GoAl 1: Singing alone and with others
GoAl 2: Performing on instruments, alone
and with others, a varied repertoire
of music
GoAl 3: Improvising melodies, variations,
and accompaniments
GoAl 4: Composing and arranging music
within specified guidelines
GoAl 5: Reading and notating music
GoAl 6: Listening to, analyzing, and
describing music
GoAl 7: Evaluate music and music
performances
GoAl 8: Understanding relationships
between music, the other arts, and
disciplines outside the arts
GoAl 9: Understanding music in relation
to history and culture
UBEATS ModUlE ovErviEw And PrEliMinAry inforMATion (3) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home
rEsoUrcEs & PrEParatory inforMation
Timing of Lessons: A lesson is not necessarily equal to one class period. Time estimates for each lesson
are suggestions based on beta testing in classrooms over a two-year period. The teacher is given the
flexibility to design the flow of the concepts with how class periods are organized.
Website URL’s Referenced in Lessons: The Lessons cite URL’s for specific websites that support the
content and activities. URL’s work differently in different browsers; if you’re having difficulties, type the
URL into a different browser, i.e. Firefox, Safari, Internet Explorer, etc. The websites are also linked at
the UBEATS users website.
UBEATS Users Website: This is a dedicated website for potential and current users of the UBEATS
curriculum. It is a resource for sound files, websites, and other materials. We invite registered users to
share ideas, new resources, and updates with the entire UBEATS community. This will enable future
additions and refreshed UBEATS iterations. Please go here to register and participate: https://sites.
google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home
RavenLite™ is a sound analysis software program used throughout the 4/5 module. It is available
for free from Cornell University at: http://www.birds.cornell.edu/brp/raven/RavenVersions.
html#RavenLite.
The software program provides both sound samples and visual representations of sounds,
called ‘spectrograms,’ for a wide variety of birds and other animals. After downloading, to access these,
open Raven Lite™, then select ‘Open Sound Files.’ Check the sample you want to hear and then press
enter. The file will open and play the sound while showing the spectrogram.
Musical Instrument Resources: You may need to contact a music specialist teacher in your school or
district to help you acquire or borrow some of the following instruments for various lessons found
in the 4/5 module. Additional community resources could include music clubs, performing arts
organizations, churches, music stores, and private music teachers. The list of musical instruments used
in the UBEATS modules are:
• Classroom Instruments: These are music instruments typically used at the K-6 Elementary level.
They may include xylophones, Metallophones, Glockenspiel, Finger Cymbals, Triangles,
Woodblocks, Hand Drums of various sizes, Claves, Tambourines, Maracas, Boomwhackers, etc.
• Percussion and Wind Instruments: These are instruments used in most band programs. They
may include Woodwind Instruments (e.g., flutes, oboes, clarinets, saxophones), Brass Instruments
(e.g., horns, trumpets, trombones, euphoniums, tubas), and Percussion Instruments (e.g., snare
drum, cymbals, bass drum, timpani).
• Guitar and Other Stringed Instruments: These are instruments found in specialty classes (e.g.,
guitar class at the secondary level) or in the orchestra. Stringed orchestral instruments include the
violin, viola, cello, and double bass.
rEfErEncEs
Science News, Your Brain On Music, Special edition, August 14th, 2010; Vol.178 #4
Zentner M., Eerola T. 2010. Rhythmic Engagement with Music in Infancy. Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences, March 15, 2010, http://www.pnas.org/content/early/2010/03/08/1000121107
UBEATS ModUlE ovErviEw And PrEliMinAry inforMATion (4) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home
5E EnGAGE ExPlorE ExPlAin ElABorATE EvAlUATE
UBEATS curricula includes two modules – a 2/3 module with 17 lessons and a 4/5 module
with 17 lessons. The modules are integrated sets of age-appropriate, inquiry-oriented
learning activities based on the 5E learning model developed by the Biological Sciences
Curriculum Study (BSCS). In this model, each ‘E’ refers to one of the five stages of a lesson
activity: engage, explore, explain, elaborate, and evaluate. This lesson model serves as
the template for all UBEATS lessons in both modules and gives each lesson’s activities
an organized and predictable structure that enhances learning. The above icons are used
throughout the modules for easy recognition of the lesson’s sections.
UBEATS ModUlE ovErviEw And PrEliMinAry inforMATion (5) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home
lEsson forMat
BioMusic is a field of study that incorporates ideas from biology, animal communication,
ethnomusicology, music theory, neuroscience, physics, bioacoustics, and evolutionary
anthropology. The ways these areas converge are unique and complex. What follows is
information presented across two sections.
The first section, BioMusic Concepts: A Guide, presents a series of concept statements and
terms intended to illuminate BioMusic’s rich and varied nature. These terms are used often
throughout both BioMusic Modules.
The second section, Science Process Skills – From a BioMusic Perspective, presents
six traditional science process skills with descriptions common to the world of science
education. Subsequently, each traditional description is followed by an enriched
contextualization of that process skill from a BioMusic perspective.
UBEATSUniversal BioMusic Education Achievement Tier in Science
concEPts and sciEncE ProcEss skills
UBEATSAbsorption (3)
Acoustics (4)
Amplitude (1)
Amplification (6)
Anthrophony (4)
Beat (2)
Biophony (4)
Call (2)
Call and Response (2)
Duration (1)
Dynamics (2)
Echo (2)
Echolocation (4)
Frequency (1)
Geophony (4)
Human Music Making (2)
Instruments (2)
Larynx (4)
Loudness (1)
Medium (or Material) (3)
Melodic Contour (2)
Melodic Pattern (2)
Musical Instruments (6)
Musical Memory (2)
Niche Hypothesis (4)
Patterns (2)
Phrase (2)
Pitch (1)
Reflection (3)
Repetition (2)
Rote Singing (2)
Rhythm (2)
Signature Sound (4)
Sine Wave (5)
Songs (2)
Soundscape (4)
Sound Wave (3)
Spectrogram (5)
Syrinx (4)
Tempo (2)
Timbre (1)
Time (1)
Tools (2)
Vibration (1)
Vocalization (2)
Wave Form (5)
tErMs
Each of the terms is coded to the concept statement in which it is discussed
(e.g., items coded with (1) can be found in the ‘1. Describing Sound’ concept statement).
dEscriBinG soUnd
Central to describing sound is to realize that sound is the result of vibrating objects that produce waves of energy (i.e.,
sound waves). Vibrations can be thought of as the end result of the energy of sound traveling through matter in waves.
The oscillation of matter back and forth is described as a vibration. The wave describes how the energy changes in
direction and intensity over time. These waves travel through most all types of matter (i.e., gases, solids, liquids) and
are received by our sensory system into what we know as sound. The matter being oscillated can be a gas, liquid or
solid, though it is most readily visible to the human eye in liquids or pliable solids (e.g. oobleck). While the basic sensory
systems of the brain register the energy waves as vibrations or sound, the higher functions of the brain process the
information by grouping into meaningful units such as a musical phrase or spoken sentences or clauses. To talk about
sound, we need to have descriptive language.
AMPLITUDE/LOUDNESS: How loud we perceive a
sound to be is determined by the width of the vibration
of the sound wave. Because a sound wave is created
by vibrating material made up of atoms and molecules,
there exists a relationship whereby the larger the
distance available for the molecules to move back
and forth, the faster the molecules will move and
therefore, the louder the sound will be. The distance
that vibrating molecules move is also related to the
amount of energy required to move the molecules,
with the more movement resulting in louder sounds.
Because sound is waves of energy, sound is often
graphically represented as a wave. The height of the
wave represents the amplitude or loudness of the sound
wave. Amplitude roughly describes how much energy
the sound waves have.
The distance that vibrating molecules move is
always very small. Humans can discriminate changes in
the sound of just a ten-millionth of an inch. However, for
some vibrations, you can actually see the material move
with the human eye. Since it takes more energy to move
a larger surface area of material, the larger the vibrating
surface, typically the louder the sound. Another
important factor is the distance between the source of
continued
1.
BioMUsic concEPts: a GUidE
concEPt statEMEnts
1. Describing Sound
2. Sound Construction and Organization
3. Physics of Sound
4. Sound and the Environment
5. Sound and Visual Representation
6. Sound and Human Technology
ConCEPTS And SCiEnCE ProCESS SKillS (7) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home
the sound and the listener. As the wave moves through
a medium (including air), the energy is absorbed and
dissipated. Loudness will drop off the farther you are
away from the sound source.
Loudness is typically measured in decibels (dB).
Examples of loudness levels (though they vary due to
the proximity to the source of the sound) are: the rustling
of leaves is about 15dB, a conversation is about 45dB, a
vacuum cleaner is about 75dB, and 150dB would result
in immediate deafness. Loudness is sometimes also
referred to as volume. The higher the volume, the louder
a sound is. Musicians often refer to a sound’s amplitude
as the dynamics of a sound (see Dynamics in Section 2).
FREQUENCy/PITCH: The rate at which an object
vibrates (e.g., the number of vibrations per unit of time)
determines the frequency or pitch of a sound wave.
Again, using the wave representation of sound,
frequency describes the time it takes for a vibration
wave to go forward and come back to its original
position; so if three vibrations occur in one second then
the frequency is said to be three vibrations per second.
Frequency is measured in hertz (Hz) where one vibration
per second is equal to 1 Hertz.
When you blow across two straws having different
lengths, the sound made by each straw will be different.
This is because the column of air within each straw
is vibrating at a different rate. When measuring the
frequency of the vibrations, we are able to measure very
precisely. For example, many music ensembles tune to
A=440hz. Interestingly, most humans are unable to hear
fine distinctions between a small range of frequencies;
for instance, distinguishing between 439hz, 440hz,
441hz, or 442hz. Instead our brains group these
frequencies into a category that is assigned as a ‘Pitch.’
So 439hz, 440hz, 441hz, and 442hz is averaged as ‘A.’
Pitch and frequency are nevertheless co-dependent. The
higher the frequency – the higher the pitch, and the lower
the frequency – the lower the pitch. The air in the short
straw will make a higher pitched sound than the air in the
longer straw.
Sound can only be heard if it is in the frequency
range that the animal or human’s sensory system can
perceive. Humans are able to hear frequencies from
20 Hz (a low rumble) to 20,000 Hz (a very high pitched
whistle). Sounds that exist above that range are referred
to as ultrasound; sounds below our range of hearing are
referred to as infrasound. Animals have different hearing
ranges than humans although we overlap hearing ranges
with many animals. Dogs and cats can hear ultrasound
frequencies (over 20,000 Hz); whales and elephants
can hear infrasound (frequencies below 20 hertz).
Ultrasounds are used in medicine to provide prenatal
scanning. Infrasounds can be made by earthquakes
and thunderstorms.
TIMBRE (pronounced tam-bur): Timbre can be described
as the quality of the sound. Rarely ever does the sensory
system detect a single sound wave. Instead, our hearing
detects multiple sound waves of different loudness
and frequency. Often, multiple waves emanating from
a single source will combine to form what is perceived
as a single sound. Many different sound sources may
have combined waves that produce what seems to be
the same pitch, but they will still sound different. Two
instruments (e.g. a violin and a clarinet) can play the
same pitches but sound very different. This difference
applies to how we perceive all sounds. One way we
describe these different sound wave combinations is by
saying they have different timbre.
The material that sound interacts with, as well
as ‘how’ the sound is made, has characteristics that
affect its timbre. While we can mathematically describe
the combination of sound waves each sound maker
creates, timbre is used to describe these differences
based on how we perceive a sound. Because of this, we
use descriptive words to characterize these perceptions.
Some adjectives used to describe timbre include:
Brassy Heavy or Light Resonant
Breathy Mellow Rough
Clear Metallic Rounded
Dark or Bright Piercing Sharp
Flat Raspy Strident
Gravelly Rattly Warm/Smooth
Harsh Reedy
TIME/DURATION: How long a sound, a pattern, or
an event lasts is as important as which pitches are
used or the timbre of the sound. Time is a fundamental
component of communication systems for all animals.
Brains perceive and organize time in units of duration –
a process that unfolds by recognizing the nuanced
differences of short and long – and on several levels
simultaneously. Typical hierarchies of time include:
the moment, seconds to minutes to hours to years to
lifetimes (see Beat and Rhythm).
ConCEPTS And SCiEnCE ProCESS SKillS (8) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home
soUnd constrUction & orGanization
The internal relationships of the elements of music-making and other types of communication events shape the message
and select the possible participants. Some species have a wide range of options for participation, perception, and meaning-
making while others are more narrowly determined. How these elements are used depends on the specie’s genetic
inheritance, its cognitive capacities, and the complexity of the social system that supports its survival. While these elements
are individually represented in the communication of other species, human music-making uses all of these elements in wide-
ranging combinations to construct cultural meaning.
BEAT: All animals have physiological functions that
operate with a sense of regularity (i.e., heart beat, inhale/
exhale, walking, running, etc.). We call a regularly
recurring, underlying pulse – the Beat. It assists brains
in organizing external sonic information and is central
to real-time social interactions. For instance, a crowd
can spontaneously clap along at a concert because
individuals are feeling together the underlying pulse or
beat. The Beat is basic for coordinating actions with an
‘other’ (synchrony or turn-taking) and is fundamental for
music-making. Whether doing or listening, the beat helps
organize the way time is perceived and manipulated.
CALL AND RESPONSE: Human music-making builds
on the importance of same/different and repetition by
constructing an alternation between Response (same
pattern always repeated) and Call (changing pattern
after Response). This form is often found in work songs
or songs associated with ritual or religious practices. It
enables a musical pattern to unify the group (Response)
while an evolving message or pattern (Call) advances
the intent.
CALL: An animal’s Call is a simple vocalization that
functions to maintain contact among members of a
group. In non-human animals, calls alert others to danger
or to potential food.
DyNAMICS: Loud and soft sounds can be discussed in
two different ways – Dynamics or Amplitude. Scientists
and acoustic engineers measure the precise intensity of a
sound as amplitude, which is indicated with a particular
number representing a decibel level (db). Dynamics also
refers to loud and soft sounds but also represent the
continuum between soft and loud sounds. Dynamics,
as used in music-making, is an impression of loud and
soft that is influenced by its context. For instance, in a
loud environment one sound may be perceived as softer
than another but if the same sound is placed in a soft
environment, it may be the loudest sound. Dynamics in
music are typically indicated by descriptive Italian terms
such as piano (soft), mezzo piano (medium soft), mezzo
forte (medium loud), forte (loud). Unlike the objective and
consistent nature of how decibel numbers represent the
loudness and softness of amplitude, the manipulation
and inflection of dynamics for interpretation and
performance plays a large part in musical expressiveness
in human cultures. Changes in dynamics, whether
sudden or gradual, can affect listeners emotionally and
physiologically (see Amplitude/Loudness).
ECHO/ROTE SINGING: An exact repetition of an external
sound or sound pattern.
HUMAN MUSIC MAKING: Recent scientific research
has established that humans are born musical. All normal
human beings are born with a suite of abilities that are
required for communication, including music-making,
and may be found in other animals’ communication
systems. They include the ability to: (a) entrain a beat;
(b) distinguish one pitch from another; (c) remember
sound patterns.
MELODIC CONTOUR: Pitches are perceived as rising
or falling, going up or down, getting higher or lower,
or staying the same. This ability makes it possible
to describe a series of pitches (the up/down/higher/
lower) as a shaped line. This visualization of the moving
direction of pitches – rise/fall/same – illustrates how the
brain interprets patterns, phrases, or whole melodies as
melodic contour.
MELODIC PATTERN: A pattern of pitches. The ability to
discriminate pitches moving high to low, low to high, and
staying the same is foundational to perceiving patterns.
MUSICAL MEMORy: The ability to recognize and recall
combinations of pitch patterns, rhythms, tempos, specific
timbres, and slight variations of all of these is essential
for culture building, group identification, and full
participation in human musical cultures. Types of musical
memory are represented in the wild and are required
for survival. Scientists study other animals’ abilities to
discriminate these essential elements and to require
exact copies or to accept and create modifications. For
humans and other species the quality of musical memory
is fundamental for recognizing group members and
high valued events. Human cultures assign important
values to specific types of music-making and associate
these valued expressions (emotional or iconic) with full
participation in a culture. continued
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PATTERNS: Brains are constantly working to organize
information from the external world. One of the ways brains
do this is to recognize repetitions in sensory information
and to organize them as a memorable unit. It is easy to see
a pattern: X X X P X X X P X X X P. But we can also hear this
pattern if you sing or play the same pitch and duration of
the sound for X and a different pitch or different pitch and
duration for P. When hearing sound patterns – our brain
can recognize pattern organization by pitch, by duration, or
a combination of both. Recognizing ‘Same’ and ‘Different’
are essential qualities used by our brains to organize and
use patterns. Sound patterns are the basis for all animal
communication and human music-making.
PHRASE: A phrase is a unit of combined melodic and/or
rhythmic patterns that form a longer unit and is perceived
as a clear demarcation point. It is not the full, complete
statement or idea but rather a sub-unit of the whole. For
instance, if you sing: “Row, row, row your boat gently
down the stream” – you have sung one phrase. The next
phrase is: “Merrily, merrily, merrily, merrily, life is but a
dream.” Animal songs also subdivide into phrases that
scientists study and compare.
REPETITION: Brains pay attention to repetition. It is
the way brains perceive pattern, and the way that
organisms communicate successfully with each other
over time. It is an essential component of memory.
In non-verbal communication such as music-making,
the repetition of musical patterns or phrases signifies
importance. Human music-making builds on this
phenomenon by using repeating snippets or phrases to
organize listening or participation in the whole musical
event. For example, repetition can be a short three-
note combination (motif) such as the beginning of the
1st movement of Beethoven’s 5th Symphony (click on
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_4IRMYuE1hI ) or a
longer phrase that repeats such as the first half of “Old
MacDonald Had a Farm.” In other animals, repetition of
pattern, phrase, or song also represents significance. For
instance, songbirds use short repeated patterns to build
distinctive songs similar to the Beethoven example, and
whales sing repetitions of long phrases similar to human
song construction. Repetition by echo of an ‘other’ also
contributes to bonding and social cohesion.
RHyTHM: Rhythm is a combination of short and long time
durations organized by an underlying beat. Recognition
and performance of rhythms are key elements for
music-making and for animal songs. Brains organize
the occurrence of sounds, actions, or movements as
combinations of short and long time units or rhythmic
patterns. Rhythm and Rhythmic patterns are distinctive
even without a melody and influence how we hear a
melody (pitch/frequency patterns). For instance, we
recognize rhythm in a percussion solo or an imbalanced
clock’s tick-tock pattern or a distinctive door knock or in the
way a person walks.
SONGS: In animals, Song is a complex learned
vocalization. For human music-making, it is a complex,
learned, non-speech vocalization. In birds and other
animals in the wild, Songs are typically used to identify
individuals or groups, establish and defend territory, and
attract mates. While humans use songs in these ways as
well, human songs are also vehicles for emotion, memory,
and meaning-making.
TEMPO: Brains perceive the speed of sounds or sonic
events. In music, tempo is calibrated by measuring the
speed of the beat or pulse in relation to the minute. In
Western Classical music notation, tempo is indicated to the
performer by a value representing the number of beats per
minute (e.g., beat = 60), which provides a quantitatively
consistent indication of the rate of the speed. Tempo may
also be indicated descriptively by words that provide
stylistic meanings. For example, ‘presto’ is used to indicate
swiftly or fast, ‘andante’ indicates a walking tempo, and
‘adagio’ indicates a tempo that is slow and graceful.
Regularity and predictability of the beat are critical
elements for the perception of the speed of patterns,
phrases, and the anticipation of cohesive musical events.
In the wild, the tempo of sonic events conveys important
species and environmental information. And changes in
tempo, especially sudden tempo changes can indicate a
need for a response or an action. Many sound sources
within a biome or ecosystem occur at various tempos (e.g.,
bird calls, cricket sounds, leaves rustling in the wind, wind
moving through trees, etc.) but may have interdependent
tempo relationships. This interplay among speeds of
the sounds of a biome, e.g., the same breeze that slowly
moves tall trees back and forth may also move the leaves
on the ground producing a rapid rustling sound, imparts
important listening awareness.
TOOLS/INSTRUMENTS: An external means or device used
to extend the body’s innate capacities to create sound.
Musical instruments are tools that enable humans to
make higher or lower pitches of sounds, louder sounds,
different quality of sounds, longer lasting sounds than
vocalizations or other body generated sounds are able to
do. The acoustic properties of spaces are also tools. Other
species also use tools and acoustics for sonic extensions
and advantage.
VOCALIZATIONS: Vocalizations are the general
categorization for sounds that are internally generated
by the body and are used externally for communication.
Vocalizations include songs and calls.
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Physics of soUnd
As described previously, sound energy is a form of mechanical energy. Sound energy is produced through vibrations as
they travel through a specific medium. Sound vibrations cause waves of pressure which lead to some level of compression
and rarefaction in the mediums through which the sound waves travel. If a sound wave is of large enough amplitude and
an appropriate frequency, we can not only hear it through our ears, but can feel it with our body. This sensation is produced
by the material that contacts our body (e.g., the air around us or the piece of metal we have our hand on) and transfers the
sound energy through waves.
ABSORPTION: The characteristics of materials determine
how much sound energy is absorbed. Materials and their
surfaces can transform sound wave energy into other kinds
of vibrational energy by spreading it out and redirecting it
in ways that diminish the original sound wave’s directed
energy. This absorption can be achieved by both the
microscopic properties of molecules and how they bond,
but also the macroscopic properties of how the material
is shaped. A material like foam sheeting or carpeting is
good at sound absorption both because of the microscopic
properties of the material and because the material’s shape
includes millions of crevices that trap and redirect sound
waves. Even though molecules in gases are distributed
farther apart than those in solids, gases still absorb some
sound energy. This affects the sound’s amplitude, or
loudness, because it falls off the farther one is from the
sound source. How much sound energy is absorbed is
dependent both on the frequency of the waves and the
type of gas the sound waves pass through (see Amplitude).
MEDIUM OR MATERIAL CHARACTERISTICS: Sound waves
are considered longitudinal waves and are characterized by
their push-pull motions. Sound waves move through each
of the mediums (air, gas, solid) by vibrating the molecules
in the matter. The molecules in solids are packed very
tightly. This enables sound to travel much faster through a
solid than a gas. Sound waves travel about thirteen times
faster in wood than air. Liquid molecules are not packed as
tightly as solids and therefore sound waves will typically
pass through more slowly than solids. Gas molecules are
very loosely packed. Sound travels about four times faster
and farther in water than it does in air. This is why whales
can communicate over huge distances in the oceans.
Sound waves also travel faster on hotter days as the
molecules bump into each other more often than when it is
cold. Quantitatively, sound waves travel at a rate of 19,685
feet per second in granite, at approximately 4,900 feet per
second in water and 1116 feet per second in air.
Sound waves interact with matter in complex ways.
Sound waves travel through solids, liquids, and gases at
varying speeds because the composition of molecules
differs in each state of matter. Sound waves will always be
altered in some way by the material that they interact with.
As the sound waves pass through a material, some of the
vibrational energy can be reflected (echo) or absorbed,
in varying amounts, depending on the surface materials.
How a material reflects, absorbs or passes through sound
waves is typically referred to as the acoustical properties of
the material.
REFLECTION: Reflection can be thought of as a redirection
of sound waves. Higher frequency waves that are more
directional are more easily reflected in a specific direction.
For instance, when a bat makes a high-pitched sound it
bounces off the wall of a cave as an ultrasound ‘echo.’ The
bat can detect the distance to the wall due to the amount
of time it takes for the sound wave it created to go out to
the reflecting surface and return. The term ‘echo,’ as used
here, describes the time delay between the wave going out
and returning. A wave can reflect off of multiple surfaces
at different locations, creating multiple echoes at different
time delays. Dolphins also echolocate using high frequency
clicks. When a dolphin makes a clicking noise, the sound
vibrations bounce off the object, and return to the dolphin
by traveling through its lower jaw, into to its ear, and finally
to its brain. Because different materials of different sizes and
shapes will absorb and reflect sound waves differently, the
dolphin’s brain is able to distinguish the object’s shape, size
and location through echolocation. Dolphins can distinguish
between different materials such as tin or aluminum cans,
live or dead fish and items as small as a pea.
Objects like smooth, hard plastics, metal, concrete,
or polished stone are unable to trap wave energy or
absorb the sound’s energy. These materials therefore
are good reflectors. Additionally geometric properties or
shapes such as concave parabolas, can reflect, collect, and
concentrate sound. (i.e., amplified). This is why satellite
dishes are shaped the way they are (see Acoustics in
Section 4).
SOUND WAVE CHARACTERISTICS: Depending on the
frequency and other characteristics of a sound wave, it
may have a very specific directionality (i.e., unidirectional),
it may spread out in all directions (i.e., omnidirectional),
or somewhere in between. You can get a sense of the
directionality of a sound by walking in a circle around the
sound source and sensing whether the loudness changes
as you circle. Generally, the higher the frequency of a
sound wave, the more directional it is. Standing right
in front of a speaker, you hear pitches across the full
frequency range. If you move progressively to the side of
the speaker, the higher pitches will begin to drop off until
you increasingly hear more low (bass) pitches.
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soUnd and thE EnvironMEnt
The communal space in which communication and music-making occurs affects all of the participants in that space. How
species use the space for sound-making and sound-receiving, and how those results are perceived by the participants
impacts biology, adaptation, and future outcomes. An important area of research is the study of sound environments
and the impact that sounds have on all organisms – including humans. The volume of sound, the competition of sounds,
intrusive vs. acceptable, the value and timing of quiet vs. sound-making are areas that provide important scientific data
about species’ wellness and environmental management.
ACOUSTICS: Acoustics refer to the properties of the
space where sound is initiated and/or received, or how
the mediums that the sound waves travel through
influence what is heard (received), by whom, and how
far away. These combined qualities and how they impact
sound reception are referred to as Acoustics.
ANIMALS IN THE ENVIRONMENT: Other Animals, like
humans, often need to communicate with each other
over long distances. Over time, animals have adapted
to leverage the opportunities their environment has
afforded them to use sounds to survive and thrive in their
environments. In some cases, animals use characteristics
and objects from the natural world to enhance their
vocal ranges and the distance their calls can travel. For
instance, dolphins and whales have evolved to transmit
and receive sounds under water rather than through
air as humans do. Bats use ultrasound not just as a
communication tool but as a way of echolocating to
navigate through woods and caves and locate insects to
eat. Some species of frogs have evolved to use the inside
of hollowed trees to amplify their croaking. Similarly,
woodpeckers use the outside of hollowed trees to amplify
rhythmic pounding with their beaks.
Other animals and humans use sound as a means
to communicate, find a mate, protect and warn against
predators, or locate community members. Species must
create a sound that others can identify, often done by
creating distinctive repetitive patterns. Some species rely
on individuals composing novel patterns that are learned,
imitated, and recognized as Signature Sounds. Like our
own speech patterns, the use of signature sounds depends
on the brain’s ability to understand and interpret patterns.
Distinctive sounds provide animals one of the
important means to survive in the wild. The great variety
of species leads to a wealth of sounds, vocalizations,
calls, and songs. Some examples include the following:
1) Humpback whales are known to sing ‘songs’. They
make sounds that are rhythmic and melodic, that can
typically last 10 to 35 minutes, and that are comprised
of phrases that are strung together without pauses to
create a song. Humpback whales use song
construction patterns that are similar to patterns
humans use.
2) Mockingbirds make harsh, raspy noises when
chasing other birds out of their territory. A similar but
distinct call is used when defending against predators
like a hawk or falcon. Other Mockingbird calls include
a wheezing noise, a ‘chuck’ note, and a very piercing
series of notes ‘high low’ repeated twice.
3) Blue Jays are also imitators and use their copy skills
for several purposes. The Blue Jay frequently mimics
the calls of hawks, especially the Red-shouldered
Hawk. These calls may provide information to other
jays that a hawk is around, or may be used to deceive
other species into believing a hawk is present so that
they can eat.
4) Chimpanzees identify intruders to their community
by the use of sound.
5) Bees help lost members back to the hive through
sound, and
6) Young animals locate their mothers through sound
just as mothers use sounds to locate young.
Animals’ ways of communicating are determined
by their biological inheritance; however, they often learn
how to perform important sound patterns when they are
young from their parents, just as a human child learns
from their adult caretakers. In this way, fundamental
performance traits of the specie’s communication system
are handed down from generation to generation. Just as
with humans, there are regional variations. For example,
birds of the same species living in different habitat zones
may not perform the same song patterns in the same
ways and, for that reason would not necessarily be able
to communicate with each other.
CREATING SOUNDS: Humans and other animals are
capable of creating a wide range of sounds. Sounds
require an energy source to initiate vibrations that
form sound waves. For humans and other animals,
vocalizations result from a vibrating mechanism inside
the throat called the larynx. Many people call it their
voice box. The larynx houses vocal cords that are
stretched across the larynx. When humans speak or
sing, air pushes between the cords, causing the cords
continued
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to vibrate and produce sound. Muscles in the diaphragm
control how much air is forced through and pushed
across the larynx, controlling the loudness of produced
sounds. Other muscles adjust the tension and space of
the vocal cords causing variance in pitch.
For birds, the vocalization organ is called a syrinx. The
syrinx is located where the bird’s windpipe branches to
its lungs, allowing the bird to make more than one sound
at a time, which humans cannot do. The muscles in the
syrinx tighten to produce sound – the tighter the muscles,
the faster the vibrations, making a higher pitch. As the
bird breathes out, it can change the amount of pressure
it puts on the syrinx, which changes the sound produced.
Humans are able to produce only one sound at a time,
because their larynx is located higher up in their trachea,
or windpipe. Because a bird has its syrinx close to its two
lungs, it has two sources of air to make sound, and can
produce two sounds at the same time! Each side of the
syrinx is controlled separately, allowing this to happen.
Other ways the body can produce sounds include
using other types of muscular energy. For instance,
humans strike parts of the body, hands and, feet
and beavers and whales slap their tails. All of these
approaches transfer energy that sets up vibrations and
have potential communication value.
ECHOLOCATION: Certain animals such as dolphins and
bats use a sensory system in which sounds are emitted,
and their echoes interpreted, to determine the direction
and distance of external objects.
NICHE HyPOTHESIS: Bioacoustician, Bernie Krause, has
proposed a new approach to understanding the sounds
of the wild called the Niche Hypothesis. He advocates
that any given biome is recognized and recognizable
by the combined sounds of all its habitants. Instead
of narrowing scientific attention only to the study of
individual species’ sounds, Krause proposes that the
entire community of sounds influences the survival of all
the inhabitants. To help organize the sounds of the Niche
Hypothesis, he suggests groupings based on the sources
of the sounds. They include: biophony (e.g., sounds
emanating from animals, insects, plants, trees, etc.);
geophony (e.g., sounds emanating from geophysical
inorganic activity in the earth system, including wind,
earthquakes, dripping, ice cracking, rainfall, thunder,
water flowing, earthquakes, volcanoes, etc.); anthrophony
(sounds emanating from man-made devices). The Niche
Hypothesis builds on many concepts of biodiversity.
RECEIVING SOUNDS: Animals can also sense the
vibrational energy that makes sounds. In humans and in
many animals, the ears are the primary mechanism for
collecting and interpreting these sound waves. Human
ears, along with those of many other animals, have an
outer, middle and inner ear. The outer ear is what is
visible on the outside of the body and is used to collect
sound waves into the middle and inner ears. The shape
and size of the outer ear, as well as the way that it is
constructed, allows an animal to hear a range of sounds
and pitches. Some animals, such as horses, are able
rotate each outer ear independently, allowing them to
better collect sound waves. For humans, the outer ear
ends in a membrane called the ear drum. Vibrations of
the ear drum are transferred to the middle ear where
a set of three bones further concentrate the direct the
sound wave vibrations. Finally, in the inner ear, a very
hard, fluid-filled bone transfers the vibrations to special
hairs that transform the vibrations into nerve impulses
transferred to the brain for interpretation. In addition to
the normal processes of aging, sounds we are exposed
to can cause damage to the hearing system of the ear,
resulting in either temporary or permanent loss of
hearing. This can mean loss of amplitude (loudness) or
frequency range.
Various species have abilities to hear frequencies
and amplitudes that the human ear is unable to detect.
For example, the dolphin can hear fourteen times better
than humans, but it does not have visible outer ears. This
is because dolphins hear through a sophisticated hearing
sensory system that is located in small ear openings
on both sides of the head. However, it is believed that
hearing underwater is mainly done through the lower jar
bone that conducts sounds to the middle ear.
SOUNDSCAPE: The combined sonic environment,
including the sounds from animate and inanimate sources,
is a distinctive and memorable event. Soundscapes are
dynamic, ever-changing, and representative of the forces
impacting the biome. Soundscapes deliver important
information that enables listeners to determine how to act.
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soUnd and visUal rEPrEsEntations
Sound waves are often represented graphically as a wave form. More specifically, the wave takes the form of a
mathematical sine function. A sine wave function can mathematically represent changes in both the amplitude (loudness)
and frequency (pitch) of the wave. Similarly, multiple waves can be mathematically combined to create complex wave forms
representative of kinds of typical sounds found in the natural environment.
An alternative graphical representation of sound is called
a spectrogram. A spectrogram represents a sound along
an x and y axis, with the x axis representing the passage
of time and the y axis representing the frequency of the
sound (higher pitches
show higher on the
y axis, etc.). Some
representations will
have a third dimension
representing amplitude.
Alternately, amplitude
can be represented by
color in the visualization.
Visually representing
human music-making
is a challenging
and complicated task that has engaged the human
imagination and confounded experts for eons. Human
music cultures have historically devised many kinds
of symbol systems to represent the actual sounds
and processes of musical engagement. For Western
music cultures, the standard accepted symbol system
evolved from European traditions and focuses on the
simultaneous visualizations of pitches, rhythm, dynamics,
timbre, and tempo as organized by an underlying beat.
Because Western music notation averages how rhythm,
pitch, and tempo are represented, efforts to improve the
system continue to more accurately convey the nuances
of live music-making.
While scientists and musicians most often use
standardized methods to represent sound, scientists
and musicians take advantage of opportunities to
invent or improve symbol systems. Sometimes new
representations are created for a specific task or
experiment. In other cases, artists and other creative
individuals invent visualizations that capture a
particular emotion or convey a narrative of a specific
site or performance. These invented systems are still a
communication tool and can be created graphically or
with other 2D or 3D media. Computer-based tools are
expanding the ways we think about representing sounds
and are expanding our capacities to convey how sound
and time affect the moment.
5.
soUnd and hUMan tEchnoloGy
Humans uses their bodies to create communicative sounds such as speech and music-making. The human voice is the
basic device for sound communication; however, finding ways to expand the natural limits of the human voice motivate and
have motivated the invention of technologies throughout history. Using tools to extend the body’s normal range of pitch,
amplitude, and time manipulation have produced many technologies or musical instruments. Typically sounds can be made
by tapping (percussion instruments), plucking (stringed instruments) or blowing air (wind instruments) across a hole or
making a reed vibrate. Each of these technologies extend communication possibilities to everything from practical messages
to emotional narratives. Earliest examples of humans making musical tools include rhythm making instruments (rattles,
drums) and pitch making instruments (flutes).
6.
The history of musical instruments reflects the evolution
of human technology. From mechanical (piano) to
electronic (electric guitar) to digital (music software),
humans manipulate available technology to extend their
range of musical participation.
We and other animals also leverage the
reflective properties of the environment to advantage
communication. Because making sound waves requires
energy, we animals work with available acoustics and
materials, (e.g., woodpeckers and frogs using hollow
trees) to concentrate and direct sounds, and to create
sounds that are perceived as louder than they would
otherwise. Humans also leverage energy provided by
electricity to amplify sound. Modern sound amplification
converts sound vibration, which is a form of acoustical
or mechanical radiant energy, into electrical energy
continued
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spectrogram
and then back into mechanical energy in the form of
vibrations again.
Microphones pick up sound wave vibrations and
convert them to a very minute electrical voltage or signal.
This signal may go directly into a recording device to
capture it in a magnetic form on a computer hard disk
or magnetic tape for later editing and playback. On a
computer, the recorded sound can also be analyzed
using visualization tools like a spectrogram. Whether the
microphone signals are played immediately or from a
recording, the signal must be strengthened or amplified
many thousands of times in order to have enough
energy to create vibrations humans can hear. For this
purpose, an audio amplifier is used. Many amplifiers
can also accommodate receiving signals from several
microphones or other sources, combining them, and then
amplifying a synthesized, more powerful version required
for an audience to hear easily.
This amplified sound may go to a single listener in
the form of headphones or to a single room in the form
of a pair of speakers. Large sound systems may utilize
many amplifiers, each working to supply the sounds
to a specific area, where the audience may consist of a
few persons or many thousands. Finally, the amplified
electrical signal is fed into one or more loudspeakers. The
loudspeaker acts as a sort of microphone in reverse. A
cone or a diaphragm is set to vibrating by the amplified
electrical current. Electrical energy is thereby converted
into mechanical energy, setting up vibrations in the
adjacent air once again with sound waves that are
audible to our hearing.
wEBsitEs
first movement of Beethoven’s 5th Symphony
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_4IRMYuE1hI
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UBEATSOBSERVING: Observation involves using the senses to gather information about an object or an
event. This includes describing similarities and differences in specimens and identifying changes
(both quantitative and qualitative) in environmental conditions (Lancour, 2004). Participants will use
their senses of sight, touch, and hearing to create accurate, detailed descriptions of each specimen
and sound found and of the environment in which they were located.
Music-making is a two-way activity that places equal emphasis on the Doer(s) and the Listener(s).
The Listener may respond in an active way to the Doer and may even opt to engage in a music-
making response that sets up a turn-taking relationship. A passive-appearing Listener (such as an
infant) may show no outward signs of active engagement with the Doer but may be internalizing
information about the sounds and may even be learning how to respond or participate with the Doer.
No reaction to the Doer is also a meaningful response because that can shape the next music-making
event initiated by the Doer. Music-making is always a closed loop of Doer and Listener and that
relationship shapes the music-making outcomes for maximum benefit.
When we participate in creating or initiating music-making, we may use all or a combination of
senses to impart information. From an auditory perspective, whether Doers or Listeners, our biology
pre-selects the sounds and methods available to us for joint music-making purposes. As we engage
musically with each other, we select sounds, make patterns, and use methods that are appropriate
for the participants, the context, and the intent of the action. We do this by leveraging our cultural
preferences, the acoustics of moment, and the available sound-making or technology resources.
We often signal our engagement in music-making through our movements and gestures.
These kinesthetic actions convey how we internalize and interpret the music-making moment.
Dancing, clapping, toe-tapping, swaying, head-bopping, singing along, the size of the movements,
the loudness of the movements, the chosen movements – all shape and intensify the experience of
music-making.
Seeing how others or we actively engage with music-making shows us what is perceived and
assists us in understanding the musical moment and its purpose. Visual cues help us observe,
participate, and interpret the collective experience. Visual representations of the act of music-making
whether in the moment (recordings, videos), or the creation of symbol systems to describe how to
reconstruct it, all support interactive and active engagement in music-making.
sciEncE ProcEss skills – froM a BioMUsic PErsPEctivE
Inquiry-oriented activities stress questioning, discovering, analyzing, explaining, and drawing conclusions.
Thinking and analysis skills are developed by having students: (a) summarize key points from text, video, or graphics;
(b) make observations and draw conclusions; (c) collect, display, and interpret qualitative and quantitative data;
(d) express concepts orally and in writing; and (e) solve practical problems. Traditional science process skills include
Observation, Inference, Classification, Measurement, Prediction, and Communication (Padilla, 1990). Additionally,
Reflection serves as a tool for students to think about what they have learned and for the teacher to assess student
understanding (Deaton, Deaton, & Leland, 2010). Below, each of the six traditional science process skills is presented
with a description common to the world of science education.
Subsequently, each traditional description is followed by an enriched contextualization of that process skill from
a BioMusic perspective.
1.
ConCEPTS And SCiEnCE ProCESS SKillS (16) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home
INFERRING: Through inferring, participants use evidence to determine what events have already
occurred. Those who use their inference skills form assumptions based upon past observations to create
testable hypotheses (Lancour, 2004). Unlike observations, which describe current conditions, inferences
are created based on past events (Lancour, 2004).
We humans infer a lot of information about the external world and about each other by using the
fundamental elements of music-making. Those building blocks include the ability to match pitch/
tone/volume, the ability to entrain a beat, and the ability to recognize previously heard music-making
patterns. We attend to these elements as our caretakers and our community practices them. The rules
and how that culture’s music-making traditions unfold teach us how to discriminate what we are hearing
and how we interpret it. Some of the inferences we make about music-making are individualized and
reflective of age, location, and social context. However, larger cultural pressures instill preferences and
biases from birth that are typically unconscious and rarely consciously examined. These imbedded
cultural rules and understandings allow us to intuit how to interact with each other, how to make and
enjoy music, and what we accept as music-making.
CLASSIFyING: Classification is the sorting of objects and events into different categories based on
properties and criteria. Classification systems may be binary, dividing objects into two groups based on
attributes, or multistage, sorting items through a hierarchy of characteristics (Bass et al., 2009).
The action loop of Doer(s) and Listener(s) relies on many classifications and categories. How the
engagement is structured is determined by many qualities of the sound such as: 1) is the sound made
by an organism or by a man-made device; 2) what is the perceived intent; 3) are body movements a
positive or negative aspect of the event; 4) is looking at the other required or is the communication
possible without it.
Other classifications focus on the details of the sounds such as pitch/frequency, timbre, tempo,
beat, rhythm, dynamics/amplitude, phrases, patterns, et al. (see Section 1). All of these in various
combinations contribute to rapid classifications and categorizations that happen in the moment and are
reflective of the participants’ biology, experiences, and knowledge.
MEASURING: Measurement is one of the key process skills and one used regularly throughout inquiry
science programs. Through measurement, participants collect quantitative data including lengths and
time. Measurements collected may be either metric or English measurements.
Research measures the quality and appropriateness of music-making by studying the Audience. Who
is available to listen, how many of the available attend, and how they respond or do not respond
are central considerations. Measuring can include: 1) which music-making elements are appropriate
or inappropriate for the Audience; 2) is the Audience response affecting behavior of either or both
Doer and Audience; 3) is the music-making accepted for a short or long term inclusion in the group’s
communication. The behaviors of the participants can be studied by observing how many adopt the
same beat or synchronize movements with each other; or if the music-making patterns are imitated
or repeated by others and for how long, and how far away. Further, how the participants attend is
important. Measuring the levels of the listener’s discrimination often indicates how dedicated the
Audience is. By giving rapt attention to the music-making, the Audience indicates full engagement, a
possible turn-taking role, and possible future behaviors.
2.
3.
4.
ConCEPTS And SCiEnCE ProCESS SKillS (17) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home
PREDICTING: Often, scientists will make predictions of future events based on evidence. Prediction
plays a crucial role as scientists develop a hypothesis to test. Data will then be collected as evidence to
support or refute the hypothesis.
We can predict behaviors or outcomes for music-making once we understand how the Doer and the
Audience are likely to interact and with what resources. Some of the critical forecasting variables include
the participants’ prior musical experiences and comprehension of the rules. These factors that predict
engagement are based on common or cultural experiences with the style of music-making, individual
acuity about the music-making rules and cultural practices. These elements enable the participants to
intuit meaning from the musical event or observe how others may be impacted by the musical event.
COMMUNICATING – Active or Passive Participation Systems: Logical link of evidence and musical
knowledge to make sense of events. Once scientists collect data, they must share their data and
communicate their findings through graphs, charts, text, formal papers, and oral presentations. These
modes of communication enable scientists to present their information in a clear form that is accessible
to the general public.
We can communicate about music-making by doing or by describing or by representing. Non-verbal
communication about music-making is action based and typically includes joining in, turn-taking,
attending to someone else’s moment of music-making through silence, protecting the sound space from
external intrusions. These actions involve visual, aural and kinesthetic expressions that communicate
important information about the musical event for the participants. For instance, when participants
choose to play an instrument to extend the communication options and then practice ways to enhance
musical effectiveness, they are using non-verbal communication to convey meaning-making beyond
self. Beyond practicing to improve one’s own skills, it may also include recruiting others to participate,
interacting with recordings, downloading/sharing sound files, attending performances, seeking out more
ways to interact with others about or doing music-making.
Other effective skills for communicating about music-making include using symbol systems to
describe or represent it. The goal of capturing and saving the moment of music-making traditionally
uses writing approaches such as music notation or descriptive words. But as technology advances, so
have the ways of capturing the musical moment. Recordings, spectrograms, audio technology, and
software programs bring more precision and more ways to study music-making. But the subtleties of
how music-making unfolds while doing it – still challenges the current technologies and symbol systems
and provides opportunities for new representational systems to develop.
Underlying the importance of communicating about the musical moment is the clear understanding
that music-making is deeply embedded in the cognitive process. Whether using non-verbal,
representational, or verbal methods, music-making creates powerful associations and memories that
contribute to cultural memory, community bonding, and future outcomes.
REFLECTION: Inquiry-based activities enable Reflections of the music-making event that incorporate
each of the science process skills. In reflecting on their observations, measurements, inferences,
classifications, and predictions, participants may consider alternative ideas and methods for data
collection and analysis. Reading the reflections of peers may also serve students in further developing
their understanding of scientific knowledge and processes. In addition, the teacher may use student
reflections as a tool for analyzing both their teaching strategies and student performance.
7.
6.
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ConCEPTS And SCiEnCE ProCESS SKillS (18) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home
rEfErEnCES
Bass, J.E., Contant, T.L., & Carin, A.A. (2009). Teaching Science as Inquiry,
11th ed.. Boston, MA: Pearson.
Deaton, C.M., Deaton, B.E., & Leland, K. (2010). Interactive reflection logs.
Science and Children, 48(3), 44-47.
Lancour, K.L. (2004). Process skills for life science. Science Olympiad National Office.
Retrieved May 9, 2011, from http://soinc.org/tguides.htm
Padilla, M.J. (1990). The scientific process skills. Research Matters – to the Science Teacher, 9004.
Retrieved May 10, 2011, from http://www.narst.org/publications/research/skill.cfm
ConCEPTS And SCiEnCE ProCESS SKillS (19) https://sites.google.com/a/uncg.edu/ubeats/home
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