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The
Scientific
Revolution
I. What Was the Scientific
Revolution?
• A revolution in human understanding and knowledge about
the physical universe
• 17th century
• Began with Kepler, Galileo
• Ended with Newton
A. “Science” Before
the Scientific Revolution
• Based almost entirely
on reasoning
• Experimental method
or observation wasn’t
used at all
• Science in medieval
times
• Alchemy
• Astrology
A medieval alchemist
B. Factors Leading to
the Scientific Revolution • Medieval Intellectual Life and
Medieval Universities
• Rise of universities
• Renewed emphasis on
mathematics
• Contact with non-Western
societies
• The Renaissance
• Renaissance system of patronage
• Exploration
• Navigational problems of long sea voyages
• Better scientific instruments
Time for a Philosopher break
C. Men and Ideas
1. Rationalism
• Reason, not tradition, is the source of all
knowledge
• René Descartes (1596–1650)
• French philosopher and mathematician
• Cogito ergo sum (“I think, therefore, I am”)
• Deductive reasoning
– which involves using a general principle
to draw conclusions about a specific
instance
• Father of “analytical geometry”
• The universe functioned in a mechanistic
fashion
René Descartes
The mind “cannot be
doubted but the body
and material world can,
the two must be
radically different.”
2. Empiricism • The belief that experience is
the only true source of
knowledge
• Roger Bacon
• Shift toward empiricism a
hallmark of the Scientific
Revolution
• Helped lead to the
development of the scientific
method Roger Bacon
In his work Opus Maius, Bacon wrote, “There are two modes of knowledge,
through argument and experience. ‘Argument’ brings conclusions and compels
us to concede them, but it does not cause certainty nor remove doubt in order
that the mind may remain at rest in truth, unless this is provided by experience.”
3. Francis Bacon and
the Scientific Method • 1561–1626
• English philosopher and empiricist
• Inductive reasoning
– which involves using concrete
facts to extrapolate broader
conclusions
• Argued for experimental
methodology
The Scientific Method
Science as a multiple-step process:
3. Test the
theory with
experiments
2. Develop a
theory that
explains the
object or
phenomenon
1. Observe an
object or
phenomenon
4. Roots of Scientific Thought:
a. Aristotle
• 4th century BCE Greek philosopher and scientist
• Wrote several scientific works
• His work laid the foundation for scientific study through the medieval era
• Gravity/Theory of falling objects
• Astronomy: Crystal spheres
b. Ptolemy
• 2nd century CE Greek
astronomer, mathematician,
and geographer
• The Almagest (Syntaxis)
• Geocentric (earth-centered)
model of the universe
• Motion of the planets
c. Models of the Universe:
Geocentric vs. Heliocentric Geocentric: the Earth is at the
center of the universe; all
heavenly bodies move around
the Earth
Heliocentric: the Sun is at the
center of the universe; all
heavenly bodies move around
the Sun—including the Earth
5. Nicholas Copernicus (1473–1543)
• Polish astronomer and mathematician
• Commentariolus (1514)
• Concerning the Revolutions of the
Celestial Spheres (1543)
• Aim to glorify God
• Sun-centered universe
• Challenged circular orbits
• Universe of staggering size
• Earth no different than any other planet
• Lutherans/Calvinists condemn – later the
Catholic Church
Video 7 min
6. Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) -
video • Danish astronomer
• Arrogant nobleman
• Amassed accurate astronomical data
• Theorized a system distinct from both the
Ptolemaic and Copernican ones
• Argued that the Moon and Sun revolve
around the Earth while other planets revolve
around the Sun
• Most sophisticated observatory of his day
• Remained an Aristotelian
• Discovered comet shooting right through crystalline spheres
7. Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) video
• German astronomer and mathematician
• Student of Tycho
• Didn’t agree with Tycho’s interpretation of data
• Disagreed with Copernicus, claiming that other bodies moved in
elliptical motion, as opposed to circular motions
• Theorized three laws of planetary motion using Tycho’s data
• Planets do not move at uniform speeds in their orbits
• Kepler's three laws of planetary motion can be
described as follows:
• The path of the planets about the sun is elliptical in shape, with the
center of the sun being located at one focus. (The Law of Ellipses)
• An imaginary line drawn from the center of the sun to the center of
the planet will sweep out equal areas in equal intervals of time. (The
Law of Equal Areas)
• The ratio of the squares of the periods of any two planets is equal to
the ratio of the cubes of their average distances from the sun. (The
Law of Harmonies)
8. Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)
• Italian mathematician, astronomer
• “Father of Science”
• Telescopes and astronomical discoveries
• Theory of falling objects; disproved Aristotle – uses mathematical formulas
• Law of inertia
• Challenges categories of “form” and “matter”
Galileo’s
telescopic
drawing of
the moon
Galileo vs. the Catholic Church
• The church
condemned
heliocentric
conceptions of
the universe
• The Roman
Inquisition
• Galileo’s trial
• Galileo recants,
put under house
arrest
19th-century depiction of Galileo before the Inquisition tribunal
9. Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727)
video • English astronomer, physicist, and
mathematician
• Synthesized the works of Copernicus,
Kepler and Galileo
• The Principia; Mathematical
Principles of Natural Philosophy
(1687)
• Blends inductive and deductive
reasoning
• Newton synthesized mathematics
with physics and astronomy to
demonstrate that the entire universe
was unified into one coherent system.
D. The Significance of
the Scientific Revolution
• Abandonment of ancient and medieval systems
• Development of the scientific method
• The Enlightenment
• Rise of the “Scientific
Community”
--Royal Society of London (1662)
--Academy of Royal Sciences
(1666)
• The modern scientific method
• A universe ordered according to
natural laws
• States established academies of
science to support and sometimes
direct scientific research.
Deism
• Deists believed in
God but rejected
organized religion
• Morality could be
achieved by
following reason
rather than the
teachings of the
church
Lord Edward Herbert of Cherbury, founder of deism
Deism (continued)
• The “great
watchmaker”
• Thomas Paine
Thomas
Paine
• Laws discovered by human
reason
• “De-Spiritualized” and de-
mystified the Universe
• Mechanical View of the
Universe
• Deistic View of God
--God as the cosmic capitalist
E. Women and the Sci. Rev.
women worked as illustrators and
model makers.
In Italy, universities offered positions to
women
Most new academies that furthered
professional credentials did not accept
female members.
Women were well involved in informal
scientific communities, attending salons
and participating in experiments
Madame du Chatelet - believed that
women's limited contribution to science
was the result of unequal education.
Rococo Art
II. The Enlightenment “Siecle de Lumiere”
“The Century of Light”
A. What Was the Enlightenment? 1. The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in Europe during
the 18th century that led to a whole new world view.
•Progressive, Rationalistic, Humanistic worldview •Paris = Center of Enlightenment •Optimism about mankind’s abilities •France = international language, largest country, most freedom, most philosophes from France
•Nobility conflict with the Capitalistic
Middle Class
Support for the Middle Class
social order against the
traditional social order
Size and increasing power
of the Middle Class
New notion of wealth
Tension and discord created
by the Middle Class
The Scientific Revolution
The Enlightenment
grew largely out of
the new methods and
discoveries achieved
in the Scientific
Revolution
Culminates in the
French Revolution
The equatorial armillary, used for navigation on ships
Enlightenment Principles
• Religion, tradition, and superstition limited independent thought
• Accept knowledge based on observation, logic, and reason, not on faith
• Scientific and academic thought should be secular
• Anti-Cameralism - monarchy was the best form of government, that all elements of society should serve the monarch,
A meeting of French Enlightenment thinkers
2. The French Salon and the
Philosophes
Madame de Pompadour
• Madame de Pompadour 1 2
• Salons: gatherings for
aristocrats to discuss new
theories and ideas
• Philosophes: French
Enlightenment thinkers who
attended the salons
• Science applied to society
• Public Sphere – individuals
gather to discuss pol and
social
The Problem of Censorship
• The attempt of the Old
Regime to control new
thinking
• Publishers and writers
hounded by censors
• Over 1000 booksellers and
authors imprisoned in the
Bastille in the early 1700’s
• Battling censorship
• Get around by using satire
and double meanings
3. The Encyclopédie • Major achievement of the philosophes
• Begun in 1745; completed in 1765
• Attempted to illustrate all human
knowledge
• Emphasis on practical science
• Desire to change the “general way of thinking”
• Greater knowledge leads to human progress
• Emphasized moderation and tolerance
• Human nature can be molded
• Inalienable rights and the social contract
• Knowledge improves goodness
Frontspiece to the
Encyclopédie
The Encyclopédie (continued)
• Denis Diderot and Jean
Le Rond d’Alembert
• Banned by the Catholic
Church
Encyclopédie editor Denis Diderot
The Encyclopédie
► Complete cycle of knowledge…………...…
change the general way of thinking.
► 28 volumes.
► Alphabetical, cross-referenced,
illustrated.
► First published in 1751.
► 1500 livres a set.
► improve the material life of Europeans.
► Change the way people think.
Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie
Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie
Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie
Subscriptions to Diderot’s Encyclopedie
What did they say???
• What is the Enlightenment?
• Should religion be tolerated?
• Why three branches?
• Why did Rome collapse?
• What main ideas did the Philosophes have?
• What is the Social Contract?
• Would you raise a child like Emile?
• What makes a man civilized?
• What slavery say about mankind?
4. Jean-Jacques Rousseau
(1712–1778) • Philosophized on the nature of society and govt
The Social Contract –
“Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains” and Emile (potentials of education)–
people are good, but environment will corrupt, therefore free and good state, just laws, wise gov’t,
popular sovereignty, people have natural rights, will of the majority (submit to General Will), people should create gov’t, gov’t should enforce people’s will
• Rather than liberation, rationalism and civilization destroys the
individual
• Civilization represents decay, not progress
• women were best suited to a passive role in social relations.
• General will asserts that the authentic, long-term needs of the people
can be correctly interpreted by a far-seeing minority.
5. Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)
• Applied rational analysis to
the study of government
• Attacked the concept of
divine right, yet supported a
strong monarchy
• Believed that humans were
basically driven by passions
and needed to be kept in
check by a powerful ruler
• Cameralism
6. John Locke (1632–1704)
• The “State of
Nature”
• Tabula rasa
• The Idea of Progress
• The relativity of
Truth
Locke
(continued)
• Treatises of Government
• Rights
• Property is most sacred
• Legislative branch #1
• People have the right to
abolish a bad gov’t
• human development is
determined by education
and society.
7. Baron de Montesquieu
(1689–1755)
• French noble and political philosopher •The Spirit of the Laws •Despotism could be avoided if political power were divided and shared by a diversity of classes •Power must check power •Admires British government •French parlements must be defenders of liberty •Influence in the US
Montesquieu (continued)
• Separation of
powers
• Constitutional
monarchy
Frontspiece to The
Spirit of the Laws
best way to protect liberty was to divide the various functions and
powers of gov’t (3 branches) – checks and balances – separation
of powers - evolve to US ideal –
LOCKE AND MONTESQUIEU
INFLUENCED THE AMERICAN
FOUNDING FATHERS AND THE
FRAMERS OF THE
CONSTITUTION MORE THAN
ANY OTHER PHILOSOPHERS.
8. Voltaire (1694–1778) • Most famous philosophe
• Wrote plays, essays, poetry, philosophy, and
books
• Attacked the “relics” of the medieval social
order
• Championed social, political, and religious
tolerance
• Ridicule oppressive gov’t, censorship, injustice and despotism (ruler with absolute power) –
• free speech “I disapprove of what you say, but I wil defend to the death your right to say it” -
• praised British limited monarchy, learn about while exiled there, urged religious and political freedom
• He believed that a good monarch was the best one could hope for. Maybe someday…
He believed that a
good monarch was
the best one could
hope for.
9. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)
• One of few philosophes to live to see the French Revolution
• Enlightenment was a personal process—release from immaturity
• More optimistic than Rousseau
• “Dare to Know”—Enlightenment was an act of personal courage
• Truth always – never lie
• Rationalism and empiricism
"Our existence has a different and
far nobler end, for which and not
for happiness, reason is properly
intended, and which must,
therefore, be regarded as the
supreme condition to which the
private ends of man must, for the
most part, be postponed."
10. Women and the
Enlightenment
• Changing
views
• Role of
education
• Equality
Mary Wollstonecraft Olympe de Gouges
a. Mary Wollstonecraft
• Declaration of the
Rights of Man
• A Vindication of the
Rights of Women
• Women deserve
equality
11. Reading Revolution
• shift from reading aloud texts perceived as
authoritative to reading many different texts
rapidly, silently, and individually.
“Enlightened
Despotism”
Frederick the Great of Prussia (r. 1740-1786)
► 1712 -– 1786.
► Succeeded his father, Frederick William I (the “Soldier King”).
► He saw himself as the “First Servant of the State.”
►Did – abolish torture of prisoners, permitted scholars wide latitude to publish, promoted education, religious toleration
►No free Prussian serfs
►Kant loved him as a ruler
Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)
► German Princess Sophie Friederike Auguste of Anhalt-Zerbst.
► 1729 -– 1796.
1762 – Comes to power with military coup = Empress of Russia
1767: Catherine summons the Legislative Commission.
1768-1774: Russo-Turkish War – Beat Ottomans
1771-1775: Pugachev Rebellion is suppressed –
Took away all rightsof Serfs after a couple brutal rebellions.
1772: First partition of Poland.
1785: Charter of Nobility.
1793: Second partition of Poland.
1795: Third partition of Poland.
Reformer? OR Despot?
• She extended the borders of Russia, acquiring the lands of Southern
Ukraine and the Crimea.
• She slowly went about reforming the government.
• Westernized Russia.
• She directed the building of the Hermitage Museum.
• Founded the Smolny Institute for Noble Girls, the first of its kind.
• 1776 she created a major cultural institution, the Great Theater in
Moscow.
• She established the Free Economic Society (1765) to encourage the
modernization of agriculture and industry.
• She promoted trade and the development of underpopulated regions
by inviting foreign settlers, and founding new towns.
• University of Moscow and Academy of Science became an
internationally recognized learning center under her sponsorship.
• She also increased the number of state and private schools.
Reformer? OR Despot?
The Partitions of Poland
- 1772
- 1793
- 1795
Russian Expansionism in the Late 18c Start at 3 minutesishovivhkey
Maria Theresa (1717- 1780)- Achievements
• To improve the rural economy and the lives of peasants, she reduced nobles'
power over the serfs
-Provided Education for Serfs.
-Unification of the currency, measures, weights, customs, and taxes.
-Created unified judicial code that we called Theresian and was foundation
for many today's Central European laws.
-Created professional army by maintaining seven year service for every male
serf in the kingdom.
-Made German language the only acceptable language to communicate in.
-Selected gifted men to be her advisers.
-Maria decreased the power of the nobility.
-The reformation that she lead for Austria was well structured.
-She limited the power of labor that nobles would force peasants to do.
-The empress had a long reign which spanned forty years.
Maria Theresa was kind-heart, courageous, and generous. She respected
the rights of others and expected others to respect her rights. Throughout the
empire, the peasants were obligated to pay monetary and work dues to their
lords. The empress reigned for forty years. She died on November 29, 1780.
Joseph II of Austria (r. 1765-1790)
► 1741 -– 1790.
► His mother was Maria Theresa.
Habsburg Family Crest
1772: First partition of Poland.
1778-1779: He failed to annex Bavaria to Austrian lands.
1781: Declared the Toleration Patent.
1781: Abolition of serfdom and feudal dues.
- converted labor obligation to cash payments – nobles and peasants hate
1785: He failed to exchange the Austria Netherlands for Bavaria.
1787-1792: Austria joined Russia in the Russo-Turkish War, but little was gained.
1795: Third partition of Poland.
Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor
• Joseph put forth an average of 690 decrees a year. (Maria Theresa had
made fewer than 100 each year.)
• Joseph's reforms included abolishing serfdom, ending press
censorship and limiting the power of the Catholic Church.
• Edict of Toleration, Joseph gave minority religions, such as
Protestants, Greek Orthodox and Jews, the ability to live and worship
more freely.
• Joseph was considered an "enlightened despot," and his reforms were
open-minded, to a point. However, Joseph's main aim was to make the
empire more efficient and financially secure.
• full legal freedom to serfs.
• elementary education was made compulsory for all boys and girls
• abolished brutal punishments and the death penalty in most instances
• Problems – got involved in wars when allied with Russia to counter
Prussia, tried to centralize medicine = epidemics,
Joseph II of Austria
The Legacy of the Enlightenment?
1. The democratic revolutions begun in
America in 1776 and continued in
Amsterdam, Brussels, and especially in
Paris in the late 1780s, put every
Western government on the defensive.
2. Reform, democracy, and republicanism
had been placed irrevocably on the
Western agenda.
The Legacy of the Enlightenment?
3. New forms of civil society arose –-- clubs,
salons, fraternals, private academies,
lending libraries, and professional/scientific organizations.
4. 19c conservatives blamed it for the
modern “egalitarian disease” (once
reformers began to criticize established
institutions, they didn’t know where and
when to stop!)
The Legacy of the Enlightenment?
5. It established a materialistic tradition
based on an ethical system derived
solely from a naturalistic account of the
human condition (the “Religion of
Nature”).
6. Theoretically endowed with full civil and
legal rights, the individual had come into
existence as a political and social force to
be reckoned with.
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