The

Scientific

Revolution

I. What Was the Scientific

Revolution?

• A revolution in human understanding and knowledge about

the physical universe

• 17th century

• Began with Kepler, Galileo

• Ended with Newton

A. “Science” Before

the Scientific Revolution

• Based almost entirely

on reasoning

• Experimental method

or observation wasn’t

used at all

• Science in medieval

times

• Alchemy

• Astrology

A medieval alchemist

B. Factors Leading to

the Scientific Revolution • Medieval Intellectual Life and

Medieval Universities

• Rise of universities

• Renewed emphasis on

mathematics

• Contact with non-Western

societies

• The Renaissance

• Renaissance system of patronage

• Exploration

• Navigational problems of long sea voyages

• Better scientific instruments

Time for a Philosopher break

C. Men and Ideas

1. Rationalism

• Reason, not tradition, is the source of all

knowledge

• René Descartes (1596–1650)

• French philosopher and mathematician

• Cogito ergo sum (“I think, therefore, I am”)

• Deductive reasoning

– which involves using a general principle

to draw conclusions about a specific

instance

• Father of “analytical geometry”

• The universe functioned in a mechanistic

fashion

René Descartes

The mind “cannot be

doubted but the body

and material world can,

the two must be

radically different.”

2. Empiricism • The belief that experience is

the only true source of

knowledge

• Roger Bacon

• Shift toward empiricism a

hallmark of the Scientific

Revolution

• Helped lead to the

development of the scientific

method Roger Bacon

In his work Opus Maius, Bacon wrote, “There are two modes of knowledge,

through argument and experience. ‘Argument’ brings conclusions and compels

us to concede them, but it does not cause certainty nor remove doubt in order

that the mind may remain at rest in truth, unless this is provided by experience.”

3. Francis Bacon and

the Scientific Method • 1561–1626

• English philosopher and empiricist

• Inductive reasoning

– which involves using concrete

facts to extrapolate broader

conclusions

• Argued for experimental

methodology

The Scientific Method

Science as a multiple-step process:

3. Test the

theory with

experiments

2. Develop a

theory that

explains the

object or

phenomenon

1. Observe an

object or

phenomenon

4. Roots of Scientific Thought:

a. Aristotle

• 4th century BCE Greek philosopher and scientist

• Wrote several scientific works

• His work laid the foundation for scientific study through the medieval era

• Gravity/Theory of falling objects

• Astronomy: Crystal spheres

b. Ptolemy

• 2nd century CE Greek

astronomer, mathematician,

and geographer

• The Almagest (Syntaxis)

• Geocentric (earth-centered)

model of the universe

• Motion of the planets

c. Models of the Universe:

Geocentric vs. Heliocentric Geocentric: the Earth is at the

center of the universe; all

heavenly bodies move around

the Earth

Heliocentric: the Sun is at the

center of the universe; all

heavenly bodies move around

the Sun—including the Earth

5. Nicholas Copernicus (1473–1543)

• Polish astronomer and mathematician

• Commentariolus (1514)

• Concerning the Revolutions of the

Celestial Spheres (1543)

• Aim to glorify God

• Sun-centered universe

• Challenged circular orbits

• Universe of staggering size

• Earth no different than any other planet

• Lutherans/Calvinists condemn – later the

Catholic Church

Video 7 min

6. Tycho Brahe (1546–1601) -

video • Danish astronomer

• Arrogant nobleman

• Amassed accurate astronomical data

• Theorized a system distinct from both the

Ptolemaic and Copernican ones

• Argued that the Moon and Sun revolve

around the Earth while other planets revolve

around the Sun

• Most sophisticated observatory of his day

• Remained an Aristotelian

• Discovered comet shooting right through crystalline spheres

7. Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) video

• German astronomer and mathematician

• Student of Tycho

• Didn’t agree with Tycho’s interpretation of data

• Disagreed with Copernicus, claiming that other bodies moved in

elliptical motion, as opposed to circular motions

• Theorized three laws of planetary motion using Tycho’s data

• Planets do not move at uniform speeds in their orbits

• Kepler's three laws of planetary motion can be

described as follows:

• The path of the planets about the sun is elliptical in shape, with the

center of the sun being located at one focus. (The Law of Ellipses)

• An imaginary line drawn from the center of the sun to the center of

the planet will sweep out equal areas in equal intervals of time. (The

Law of Equal Areas)

• The ratio of the squares of the periods of any two planets is equal to

the ratio of the cubes of their average distances from the sun. (The

Law of Harmonies)

8. Galileo Galilei (1564–1642)

• Italian mathematician, astronomer

• “Father of Science”

• Telescopes and astronomical discoveries

• Theory of falling objects; disproved Aristotle – uses mathematical formulas

• Law of inertia

• Challenges categories of “form” and “matter”

Galileo’s

telescopic

drawing of

the moon

Galileo vs. the Catholic Church

• The church

condemned

heliocentric

conceptions of

the universe

• The Roman

Inquisition

• Galileo’s trial

• Galileo recants,

put under house

arrest

19th-century depiction of Galileo before the Inquisition tribunal

9. Sir Isaac Newton (1642–1727)

video • English astronomer, physicist, and

mathematician

• Synthesized the works of Copernicus,

Kepler and Galileo

• The Principia; Mathematical

Principles of Natural Philosophy

(1687)

• Blends inductive and deductive

reasoning

• Newton synthesized mathematics

with physics and astronomy to

demonstrate that the entire universe

was unified into one coherent system.

D. The Significance of

the Scientific Revolution

• Abandonment of ancient and medieval systems

• Development of the scientific method

• The Enlightenment

• Rise of the “Scientific

Community”

--Royal Society of London (1662)

--Academy of Royal Sciences

(1666)

• The modern scientific method

• A universe ordered according to

natural laws

• States established academies of

science to support and sometimes

direct scientific research.

Deism

• Deists believed in

God but rejected

organized religion

• Morality could be

achieved by

following reason

rather than the

teachings of the

church

Lord Edward Herbert of Cherbury, founder of deism

Deism (continued)

• The “great

watchmaker”

• Thomas Paine

Thomas

Paine

• Laws discovered by human

reason

• “De-Spiritualized” and de-

mystified the Universe

• Mechanical View of the

Universe

• Deistic View of God

--God as the cosmic capitalist

E. Women and the Sci. Rev.

women worked as illustrators and

model makers.

In Italy, universities offered positions to

women

Most new academies that furthered

professional credentials did not accept

female members.

Women were well involved in informal

scientific communities, attending salons

and participating in experiments

Madame du Chatelet - believed that

women's limited contribution to science

was the result of unequal education.

Rococo Art

II. The Enlightenment “Siecle de Lumiere”

“The Century of Light”

A. What Was the Enlightenment? 1. The Enlightenment was an intellectual movement in Europe during

the 18th century that led to a whole new world view.

•Progressive, Rationalistic, Humanistic worldview •Paris = Center of Enlightenment •Optimism about mankind’s abilities •France = international language, largest country, most freedom, most philosophes from France

•Nobility conflict with the Capitalistic

Middle Class

Support for the Middle Class

social order against the

traditional social order

Size and increasing power

of the Middle Class

New notion of wealth

Tension and discord created

by the Middle Class

The Scientific Revolution

The Enlightenment

grew largely out of

the new methods and

discoveries achieved

in the Scientific

Revolution

Culminates in the

French Revolution

The equatorial armillary, used for navigation on ships

Enlightenment Principles

• Religion, tradition, and superstition limited independent thought

• Accept knowledge based on observation, logic, and reason, not on faith

• Scientific and academic thought should be secular

• Anti-Cameralism - monarchy was the best form of government, that all elements of society should serve the monarch,

A meeting of French Enlightenment thinkers

2. The French Salon and the

Philosophes

Madame de Pompadour

• Madame de Pompadour 1 2

• Salons: gatherings for

aristocrats to discuss new

theories and ideas

• Philosophes: French

Enlightenment thinkers who

attended the salons

• Science applied to society

• Public Sphere – individuals

gather to discuss pol and

social

The Problem of Censorship

• The attempt of the Old

Regime to control new

thinking

• Publishers and writers

hounded by censors

• Over 1000 booksellers and

authors imprisoned in the

Bastille in the early 1700’s

• Battling censorship

• Get around by using satire

and double meanings

3. The Encyclopédie • Major achievement of the philosophes

• Begun in 1745; completed in 1765

• Attempted to illustrate all human

knowledge

• Emphasis on practical science

• Desire to change the “general way of thinking”

• Greater knowledge leads to human progress

• Emphasized moderation and tolerance

• Human nature can be molded

• Inalienable rights and the social contract

• Knowledge improves goodness

Frontspiece to the

Encyclopédie

The Encyclopédie (continued)

• Denis Diderot and Jean

Le Rond d’Alembert

• Banned by the Catholic

Church

Encyclopédie editor Denis Diderot

The Encyclopédie

► Complete cycle of knowledge…………...…

change the general way of thinking.

► 28 volumes.

► Alphabetical, cross-referenced,

illustrated.

► First published in 1751.

► 1500 livres a set.

► improve the material life of Europeans.

► Change the way people think.

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Pages from Diderot’s Encyclopedie

Subscriptions to Diderot’s Encyclopedie

What did they say???

• What is the Enlightenment?

• Should religion be tolerated?

• Why three branches?

• Why did Rome collapse?

• What main ideas did the Philosophes have?

• What is the Social Contract?

• Would you raise a child like Emile?

• What makes a man civilized?

• What slavery say about mankind?

4. Jean-Jacques Rousseau

(1712–1778) • Philosophized on the nature of society and govt

The Social Contract –

“Man is born free, but everywhere he is in chains” and Emile (potentials of education)–

people are good, but environment will corrupt, therefore free and good state, just laws, wise gov’t,

popular sovereignty, people have natural rights, will of the majority (submit to General Will), people should create gov’t, gov’t should enforce people’s will

• Rather than liberation, rationalism and civilization destroys the

individual

• Civilization represents decay, not progress

• women were best suited to a passive role in social relations.

• General will asserts that the authentic, long-term needs of the people

can be correctly interpreted by a far-seeing minority.

5. Thomas Hobbes (1588–1679)

• Applied rational analysis to

the study of government

• Attacked the concept of

divine right, yet supported a

strong monarchy

• Believed that humans were

basically driven by passions

and needed to be kept in

check by a powerful ruler

• Cameralism

6. John Locke (1632–1704)

• The “State of

Nature”

• Tabula rasa

• The Idea of Progress

• The relativity of

Truth

Locke

(continued)

• Treatises of Government

• Rights

• Property is most sacred

• Legislative branch #1

• People have the right to

abolish a bad gov’t

• human development is

determined by education

and society.

7. Baron de Montesquieu

(1689–1755)

• French noble and political philosopher •The Spirit of the Laws •Despotism could be avoided if political power were divided and shared by a diversity of classes •Power must check power •Admires British government •French parlements must be defenders of liberty •Influence in the US

Montesquieu (continued)

• Separation of

powers

• Constitutional

monarchy

Frontspiece to The

Spirit of the Laws

best way to protect liberty was to divide the various functions and

powers of gov’t (3 branches) – checks and balances – separation

of powers - evolve to US ideal –

LOCKE AND MONTESQUIEU

INFLUENCED THE AMERICAN

FOUNDING FATHERS AND THE

FRAMERS OF THE

CONSTITUTION MORE THAN

ANY OTHER PHILOSOPHERS.

8. Voltaire (1694–1778) • Most famous philosophe

• Wrote plays, essays, poetry, philosophy, and

books

• Attacked the “relics” of the medieval social

order

• Championed social, political, and religious

tolerance

• Ridicule oppressive gov’t, censorship, injustice and despotism (ruler with absolute power) –

• free speech “I disapprove of what you say, but I wil defend to the death your right to say it” -

• praised British limited monarchy, learn about while exiled there, urged religious and political freedom

• He believed that a good monarch was the best one could hope for. Maybe someday…

He believed that a

good monarch was

the best one could

hope for.

9. Immanuel Kant (1724-1804)

• One of few philosophes to live to see the French Revolution

• Enlightenment was a personal process—release from immaturity

• More optimistic than Rousseau

• “Dare to Know”—Enlightenment was an act of personal courage

• Truth always – never lie

• Rationalism and empiricism

"Our existence has a different and

far nobler end, for which and not

for happiness, reason is properly

intended, and which must,

therefore, be regarded as the

supreme condition to which the

private ends of man must, for the

most part, be postponed."

10. Women and the

Enlightenment

• Changing

views

• Role of

education

• Equality

Mary Wollstonecraft Olympe de Gouges

a. Mary Wollstonecraft

• Declaration of the

Rights of Man

• A Vindication of the

Rights of Women

• Women deserve

equality

11. Reading Revolution

• shift from reading aloud texts perceived as

authoritative to reading many different texts

rapidly, silently, and individually.

“Enlightened

Despotism”

Frederick the Great of Prussia (r. 1740-1786)

► 1712 -– 1786.

► Succeeded his father, Frederick William I (the “Soldier King”).

► He saw himself as the “First Servant of the State.”

►Did – abolish torture of prisoners, permitted scholars wide latitude to publish, promoted education, religious toleration

►No free Prussian serfs

►Kant loved him as a ruler

Catherine the Great (r. 1762-1796)

► German Princess Sophie Friederike Auguste of Anhalt-Zerbst.

► 1729 -– 1796.

1762 – Comes to power with military coup = Empress of Russia

1767: Catherine summons the Legislative Commission.

1768-1774: Russo-Turkish War – Beat Ottomans

1771-1775: Pugachev Rebellion is suppressed –

Took away all rightsof Serfs after a couple brutal rebellions.

1772: First partition of Poland.

1785: Charter of Nobility.

1793: Second partition of Poland.

1795: Third partition of Poland.

Reformer? OR Despot?

• She extended the borders of Russia, acquiring the lands of Southern

Ukraine and the Crimea.

• She slowly went about reforming the government.

• Westernized Russia.

• She directed the building of the Hermitage Museum.

• Founded the Smolny Institute for Noble Girls, the first of its kind.

• 1776 she created a major cultural institution, the Great Theater in

Moscow.

• She established the Free Economic Society (1765) to encourage the

modernization of agriculture and industry.

• She promoted trade and the development of underpopulated regions

by inviting foreign settlers, and founding new towns.

• University of Moscow and Academy of Science became an

internationally recognized learning center under her sponsorship.

• She also increased the number of state and private schools.

Reformer? OR Despot?

The Partitions of Poland

- 1772

- 1793

- 1795

Russian Expansionism in the Late 18c Start at 3 minutesishovivhkey

Maria Theresa (1717- 1780)- Achievements

• To improve the rural economy and the lives of peasants, she reduced nobles'

power over the serfs

-Provided Education for Serfs.

-Unification of the currency, measures, weights, customs, and taxes.

-Created unified judicial code that we called Theresian and was foundation

for many today's Central European laws.

-Created professional army by maintaining seven year service for every male

serf in the kingdom.

-Made German language the only acceptable language to communicate in.

-Selected gifted men to be her advisers.

-Maria decreased the power of the nobility.

-The reformation that she lead for Austria was well structured.

-She limited the power of labor that nobles would force peasants to do.

-The empress had a long reign which spanned forty years.

Maria Theresa was kind-heart, courageous, and generous. She respected

the rights of others and expected others to respect her rights. Throughout the

empire, the peasants were obligated to pay monetary and work dues to their

lords. The empress reigned for forty years. She died on November 29, 1780.

Joseph II of Austria (r. 1765-1790)

► 1741 -– 1790.

► His mother was Maria Theresa.

Habsburg Family Crest

1772: First partition of Poland.

1778-1779: He failed to annex Bavaria to Austrian lands.

1781: Declared the Toleration Patent.

1781: Abolition of serfdom and feudal dues.

- converted labor obligation to cash payments – nobles and peasants hate

1785: He failed to exchange the Austria Netherlands for Bavaria.

1787-1792: Austria joined Russia in the Russo-Turkish War, but little was gained.

1795: Third partition of Poland.

Joseph II, Holy Roman Emperor

• Joseph put forth an average of 690 decrees a year. (Maria Theresa had

made fewer than 100 each year.)

• Joseph's reforms included abolishing serfdom, ending press

censorship and limiting the power of the Catholic Church.

• Edict of Toleration, Joseph gave minority religions, such as

Protestants, Greek Orthodox and Jews, the ability to live and worship

more freely.

• Joseph was considered an "enlightened despot," and his reforms were

open-minded, to a point. However, Joseph's main aim was to make the

empire more efficient and financially secure.

• full legal freedom to serfs.

• elementary education was made compulsory for all boys and girls

• abolished brutal punishments and the death penalty in most instances

• Problems – got involved in wars when allied with Russia to counter

Prussia, tried to centralize medicine = epidemics,

Joseph II of Austria

The Legacy of the Enlightenment?

1. The democratic revolutions begun in

America in 1776 and continued in

Amsterdam, Brussels, and especially in

Paris in the late 1780s, put every

Western government on the defensive.

2. Reform, democracy, and republicanism

had been placed irrevocably on the

Western agenda.

The Legacy of the Enlightenment?

3. New forms of civil society arose –-- clubs,

salons, fraternals, private academies,

lending libraries, and professional/scientific organizations.

4. 19c conservatives blamed it for the

modern “egalitarian disease” (once

reformers began to criticize established

institutions, they didn’t know where and

when to stop!)

The Legacy of the Enlightenment?

5. It established a materialistic tradition

based on an ethical system derived

solely from a naturalistic account of the

human condition (the “Religion of

Nature”).

6. Theoretically endowed with full civil and

legal rights, the individual had come into

existence as a political and social force to

be reckoned with.