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The Key to Women’s Employment: Education
Hakan ErcanMiddle East Technical University
TOBB PresentationDecember 2012
Salient facts for Turkey
• Labor force participation rate in Turkey is around 50%.
• Women’s LFPR was 28% in September 2012, highest ever.
• Why?• Lack of education! • Not only women’s education, men’s
education!• Outside of large metropolitan areas, non-
economic dynamics are at work.
December 2012 2
Labour Force Participation Rates
Provincial Labor Force Statistics, 2009 (TÜİK)
4
İl bazında işgücü göstergeleri, 2009
İl kodu İl adı
IKO(%)
IO(%)
ISO(%)
53 Rize 65.8 4.6 62.88 Artvin 64.0 5.6 60.4
29 Gümüşhane 62.4 4.4 59.675 Ardahan 60.6 4.2 58.069 Bayburt 59.2 4.5 56.520 Denizli 55.5 13.2 48.117 Çanakkale 50.1 7.3 46.518 Çankırı 50.3 9.5 45.522 Edirne 52.2 13.4 45.214 Bolu 50.2 11.5 44.581 Düzce 51.2 14.6 43.850 Nevşehir 48.5 9.9 43.768 Aksaray 45.8 13.1 39.86 Ankara 44.9 13.6 38.81 Adana 49.0 26.5 36.0
58 Sivas 39.0 13.2 33.930 Hakkari 38.2 19.7 30.747 Mardin 32.3 12.8 28.272 Batman 32.5 13.5 28.121 Diyarbakır 32.7 20.6 26.056 Siirt 30.4 14.8 25.973 Şırnak 30.7 17.0 25.5
December 2012
Rural-urban migration is still going on:
December 2012 5
Net Migrants from Rural to Urban by Age Group: 1990 to 2000 (in thousands)
Total = 4.45 million (excludes 0-9 year-olds)
10-14; 681 ; 15%
15-19; 851 ; 19%
20-24; 892 ; 20%
25-29; 699 ; 16%
30-34; 360 ; 8%
35-39; 306 ; 7%
40-44; 209 ; 5%
45-49; 131 ; 3%
50+; 321; 7%
Most migrants are young. Almost all had five years of schooling, until recently.
International cross-country data: • Women’s (25-44 year-olds) LFPR against
GDP per capita in PPP:
December 2012 6
Turkey projections• We are 15 points below than what we
must be, given our per capita income.
December 2012 7
Francisco H. G. Ferreira, The World BankConversations in Istanbul and Ankara, June 2008
December 2012 8
Not only consumption, but life itself:
December 2012 9
Even if we accept inequalities attributable to personal responsibility Even if we accept inequalities attributable to personal responsibility as fair, there remain huge inequalities due to morally-irrelevant as fair, there remain huge inequalities due to morally-irrelevant circumstances beyond the control of individuals. circumstances beyond the control of individuals.
... And work (factors for first job transition, 25-29 year-olds)
10 babailk 1.252019 .0041 68.63 0.000 1.244009 1.260081 anneilk .7694314 .003622 -55.68 0.000 .7623651 .7765632 kent .943005 .002423 -22.84 0.000 .9382678 .947766 evli 1.039469 .002685 14.99 0.000 1.03422 1.044745 kurs 1.016089 .0103472 1.57 0.117 .9960095 1.036573 mesleklise .6931845 .0034146 -74.39 0.000 .6865241 .6999095 lise .3876368 .0017827 -206.07 0.000 .3841585 .3911466 ortaokul .3317522 .0015531 -235.68 0.000 .3287221 .3348103 ilkokul .2337012 .0009514 -357.11 0.000 .231844 .2355733 female .1159063 .0002926 -853.52 0.000 .1153342 .1164813 isbuldu Odds Ratio Std. Err. z P>|z| [95% Conf. Interval]
Log likelihood = -2544822.2 Pseudo R2 = 0.1985 Prob > chi2 = 0.0000 LR chi2(10) = 1260723.81Logistic regression Number of obs = 5368758
-> s6 = 25-29
December 2012
Flexicurity? • Not so sure anymore (after Spain during
the recent crisis). Not with occupational segregation, low wages, and informal employment.
• Daycare? Safe public transportation?
• Yes, but ... In Istanbul and Ankara and a few other cities.
• Gaziantep? Konya? Mardin?
December 2012 11
LFPR by education levels (%)
December 2012 12
Education Male Female
Less than hi school
72 25
High school 74 31
College 85 68
Monthly earnings by year, sex, and sector (non-agriculture)
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
TL
per
mo
nth
MaleF
FemaleF
MaleINF
FemaleINF
December 2012 13
Women’s Earnings Profiles: Age and Education
14
0.0
200.0
400.0
600.0
800.0
1000.0
1200.0No
dip
lom
Prim
ary s
Seco
ndar
y
Gene
ral H
Voca
tiona
Terti
ary
TL/m
onth
Women's wages by age and education
20-24
25-29
30-34
35-39
40-44
45-49
55-59
December 2012
Thank you.
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