Second Edition Dr. Wasim Al-Habil. Chapter 8...................... Chapter 8.........................

Second EditionSecond Edition

Dr. Wasim Al-Habil.Dr. Wasim Al-Habil.

Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Chapter 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Research Methods for Business Students

Research Methods for Business Students Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill

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Chapter EightChapter Eight

Research Methods for Business Students

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Key TopicsKey Topics

To understand the role that observation may play as a data collection method in your research design.

To identify two types of observation, participant observation and structured observation, and their differing origins and applications.

To adopt particular approaches to data collection and analysis for both participant observation and structured observation.

To identify threats to validity and reliability faced by the two types of observation.

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Wish to research

Formulate and clarify your Research topic

Critically review the literature

Choose your researchapproach and strategy

Negotiate access and address ethical issues

Plan your data collection and collect the data using one or more of :

Sampling Secondary data Observation Semi-structured and in-depth interviews Questionnaires

Analyse your data using one or both of:

Write your project report

Submit your report

Quantitative methods Qualitative methods

The research Process

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8.1 Introduction

Observation involves: The systematic observation, recording, description, analysis and interpretation of people’s behavior.

1. Participant Observations: It is qualitative and derives from the work of social anthropology earlier in the 20th century. Its emphasis is on discovering the meanings that people attach to their actions.

2. Structured Observations: It is quantitative and is more concerned with the frequency of those actions.

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8.2 Participant observation: an introduction

What is participant observation?

The researcher attempts to participate fully in the lives and activities of subjects and thus becomes a member of their group, organization or community. This enables the researcher to share their experiences by not merely observing what is happening but also feeling it.

It has been used extensively in these disciplines to attempt to get to the root of “what is going on” in a wide range of social settings.

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8.2 Participant observation: an introduction

Situations in which participant observation has been used.

Adopting the participant observer role as an existing member of an organization does present opportunities to you.

However, it also has its dangers.

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8.3 Participant observation: researcher roles

1. Complete participant2. Complete observer3. Observer as participant4. Participant as observer

See figure 8.1 in page 224

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8.3 Participant observation: researcher roles

Complete participant: The complete participant role sees you as the researcher attempting to become a member of the group in which you are performing research.

You do NOT reveal your true purpose to the group members. It is close to SPYING.

You may be able to justify this role on pure research grounds in the light of your research questions and objective.

Example: Why do employees smoke during the work breaks?

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8.3 Participant observation: researcher roles

Complete observer: You would not reveal the purpose of your activity to those you were observing.

However, unlike the complete participant role, you do not take part in the activities of the group.

Example: Why do consumers choose a certain cashier?

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8.3 Participant observation: researcher roles

Observer as participant: You might adopt the role of observer as participant in an outward-bound course to assist team building if you were attending to observe without taking part in the activities in the same way as the “real” candidates.

In other words, you would be a “spectator.” (watcher)

However, your identity as a researcher would be clear to all concerned. They would know your purpose.

Example: Searching the impact of a training course, designed by HR Dept, on the performance of employees.

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8.3 Participant observation: researcher roles

Participant as observer: In the role of participant as observer you reveal your purpose as a researcher.

Both you and the subjects are aware of the fact that it is a field work relationship. You are particularly interested to gain the trust of the group.

Example: Searching the impact of salespersons’ characters on convincing the customers to buy a certain product.

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8.3 Participant observation: researcher roles

Factors that will determine the choice of participant observer role:

1. The purpose of your research2. The time you have to devote to your

research3. The degree to which you fell suited to

participant observation4. Organizational access5. Ethical considerations

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8.4 Participant observation: data collection and analysis

Primary observations are those where you would note what happened or what was said at the time. (Unprocessed Observation)

Secondary observations are statements by observers of what happened or was said. This is necessarily involves those observer’s interpretation. (Processed Observation)

Experiential data are those data on your perceptions and feelings as you experience the process you are researching.

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8.4 Participant observation: data collection and analysis

Data collection

The data that you collect depend on your research question and objectives which have given a particular focus to your observation.

How you record your data will depend to a great extent on the role you play as the participant observer.

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8.4 Participant observation: data collection and analysis

Data analysis

In participant observation research, your data collection and analysis activity may be part of the same process.

You will be carrying out analysis and collection of data simultaneously.

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8.4 Participant observation: data collection and analysis

Threats to reliability and validity

The greatest threat to the reliability of you research conclusions produces as a result of a participant observation study is that of observer’s bias.

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8.4 Participant observation: data collection and analysis Advantages of participant observation:

1. It is good at explaining “what is going on” in particular social situations.

2. It heightens the researcher’s awareness of significant social processes.

3. It is particularly useful for researchers working within their own organizations.

4. Some participant observation affords the opportunity for the researcher to experience “for real” the emotions of those who are being researched.

5. Virtually all data collected are useful.

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8.4 Participant observation: data collection and analysis

Disadvantages of participant observation:

1. It can be very time consuming.

2. It can pose difficult ethical dilemmas for the researcher.

3. There can be high levels of role conflict for the researcher.

4. The closeness of the researcher to the situation being observed can lead to significant observer bias.

5. Te participant observer role is a very demanding one, to which not all researchers will be suited.

6. Access to organizations may be difficult.

7. Data recording is often very difficult for the researcher.

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8.5 Structured observation: an introduction

Structured observation is systematic and has a high level of predetermined structure. If you use this method in your data collection strategy you will be adopting a more detached stance.

Structured observation may form only a part of your data collection approach because its faction is to tell you how often things happen rather than why they happen.

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8.5 Structured observation: an introduction

Situations in which structured observation may be used.

Time-and-motion study.

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8.5 Structured observation: an introduction

Advantages of structured observation:

1. It can be used by anyone after suitable training in the use of the measuring instrument.

2. It should yield highly reliable results by virtue of its repelicability.

3. Structured observation is capable of more than simply observing the frequency of events.

4. The method allows the collection of data at the time they occur in their natural setting.

5. Structured observation secures information that most participant would ignore because to them it was too mundane or irrelevant.

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8.5 Structured observation: an introduction

Disadvantages of structured observation:

1. The observer must be in the research setting when the phenomena under study are taking place.

2. Research results are limited to overt (obvious) action or surface indicators from which the observer must make inferences.

3. Data are slow and expensive to collect.

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8.6 Structured observation: data collection and analysis

Using coding schedules to collect data

Checklist of questions to ask when choosing an “off-the-shelf” coding schedule•see box 8.1 in page 234

You may decide that no “off-the-shelf” coding schedule is suitable for your purposes.

An alternative to the use of an “off-the-shelf” coding schedule or the development of your own may be a combination of the two.

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Table 8.1 Table 8.1 Checklist of q’s to ask Checklist of q’s to ask when choosing an “off the shelf” when choosing an “off the shelf” coding schedulecoding schedule

For what purpose was the coding schedule developed?Is it consistent with your research question(s) andobjectives? (It should be.)

Is there overlap between the behaviours to be observed?(There should not be.)

Are all behaviours in which you are interested coveredby the schedule? (They should be.)

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Table 8.1 Table 8.1 Checklist of q’s to ask Checklist of q’s to ask when choosing an “off the shelf” when choosing an “off the shelf” coding schedulecoding schedule

Are the behaviours sufficiently clearly specified so thatall observers will place behaviours in the same category?(They should be.)

Is any observer interpretation necessary? (It should not be.)

Are codes to be used indicated on the recording form toavoid the necessity for memorisation by the observer?(They should be.)

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Table 8.1 Table 8.1 Checklist of q’s to ask Checklist of q’s to ask when choosing an “off the shelf” when choosing an “off the shelf” coding schedulecoding schedule

Will the behaviours to be observed be relevantto the inferences you make. (They should be.)

Have all sources of observer’s bias been eliminated?(They should have been.)

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Table 8.2Table 8.2 Guidelines for Guidelines for developing your own coding developing your own coding scheduleschedule

Attribute Comment

Focused Do not observe and record all that is going on.

Only concern yourself with what is strictly

relevant.

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Table 8.2Table 8.2 Guidelines for Guidelines for developing your own coding developing your own coding scheduleschedule

Attribute Comment

Unambiguous Therefore requiring the absoluteminimum of observer

interpretation

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Table 8.2Table 8.2 Guidelines for Guidelines for developing your own coding developing your own coding scheduleschedule

Attribute Comment

Non-context The observer’s job is more difficult dependent if the coding of behaviours is

dependent on the context in which the behaviour occurs. It may be essential for your researchquestion(s) and objectives to recordcontextual data, but this should be kept to a minimum.

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Table 8.2Table 8.2 Guidelines for Guidelines for developing your own coding developing your own coding scheduleschedule

Attribute Comment

Explicitly defined Provide examples for the observer(even if this is you) of behaviourswhich fall into each category and those that do not.

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Table 8.2Table 8.2 Guidelines for Guidelines for developing your own coding developing your own coding scheduleschedule

Attribute Comment

Exhaustive Ensure that it is always possible to

make a coding for those behaviours

you wish to observe.

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Table 8.2Table 8.2 Guidelines for Guidelines for developing your own coding developing your own coding scheduleschedule

Attribute Comment

Mutually exclusive Ensure that there is no overlap

between behaviour categories

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Table 8.2Table 8.2 Guidelines for Guidelines for developing your own coding developing your own coding scheduleschedule

Attribute Comment

Easy to record The observer must be able to tickthe correct box quickly without havingto memorise appropriate categories.

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8.6 Structured observation: data collection and analysis

Data analysis It may be that the amount of interactions

varies by the nature of the group or its activity, or that seating position is associated with the amount of contributions.

Patterns reflecting relationships between amounts of interaction categories may become evident, and this level of analysis is obviously more complex and will need computer software to calculate the cross-classifications.

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8.6 Structured observation: data collection and analysis

Threats to validity and reliability:

1. Subject error2. Time error3. Observer effect

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Subject errorSubject error

Choose subjects who are in as many ways as possible‘normal’ examples of the population under study.

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Time errorTime error

Conduct the observations at times which you consider ‘typical’ of the total time period in whichyou are interested.

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Observer effectObserver effect

• The process of the observer’s observation changes the nature of the behaviour owing to the fact that thesubject is conscious of being observed.

• This poses a serious threat to validity and reliability.

Solutions – ‘minimal interaction’ and ‘habituation’where those being observed either don’t notice you or take observation for granted.

• As habituation rises so the observer effect diminishes.

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8.7 Summary

Participant observation is a method in which the researcher participates in the lives and activities of those whom they are studying. It is used to attempt to get to the root of “what is going on”in a wide range of social settings.

You may use the participant observation method in a student placement or you may already be a member of an organization that will enable you to adopt the role of the practitioner-researcher.

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8.7 Summary

Participant observation means that you adopt a number of potential roles differentiated by the degree to which your identify is concealed from the subjects of the research and the degree to which you participate in the events you are studying.

Participant observation must avoid the trap of mere storytelling. The purpose is to develop theory.

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8.7 Summary

A prevalent form of data analysis used in participant observation is analytic induction. This may lead to an initial hypothesis being redeveloped more than once.

Structured observation is concerned with the frequency of events. It is characterized by a high level of predetermined structure and quantitative analysis.

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8.7 Summary

A choice may be made between “off-the-shelf” coding schedules and a schedule that you design for your own purpose. Alternatively you may decide to use a “hybrid”.

The main threats to reliability and validity inherent in structured observation are subject error, time error and observer effects.