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Trade Policy
Global Trade and Finance
Prof. Bryson, Marriott School
Part I. Tariffs
A tariff is a tax, usually ad valorem (on the value or some percentage of the estimated market value of a commodity).
It is imposed as a commodity crosses the frontier of the importing country.
First, they create revenues
Second, they hinder foreign competition.
The Two Functions of Tariffs
Trade Before Tariffs
Sd
Dd
World Price
Imports
Because the world price is below the domestic price, imports are equal to the shortage between Dd and Sd at the world price.
Tariffs
Now, this country imposes a tariff,
World Price
Pw plus tariff
and the price rises from Pw to Pw + Tariff.
Tariffs
We get the famous areas a,b,c, and d.
World Price
Wp plus tariff
Imports after tariff
a b c d
Imports before tariff
Consumers lose areas a+b+c+d in consumers surplus as the tariff raises the price.
World Price
Wp plus tariff
a b c d
Producers gain Area A
Smaller than what consumers lost
Net national loss from the quota: areas b and d. These are losses in consumer surplus not offset by gains made elsewhere.
World Price
Wp plus tariff
a b c d
Government collects area c as tariff revenues
World Price
Wp plus tariff
a b c d
b is the Production effect. This is a deadweight loss. Consumers
purchases are shifted to the more expensive, less-efficient
domestically produced product.
d is the consumption effect, also deadweight loss, resulting
from the reduction in consumption due to the higher price.
World Price
Wp plus tariff
a b c d
So the net national welfare loss is b + d.
More about b and d
The net losses, b and d, dont appear very large, but 1% of US GNP is still well over $100 billionNet national loss is substantially less than consumer loss.
More about b and d
There is also an administrative cost to a tariff (part of c must be added to b and d).Protection has dynamic (technological effects).Stagnation.
Part II. Quotas
Import Quotas
Historically, as tariffs decrease through the efforts of GATT/WTO, other barriers replace them. This has gone on since the early 1950s.
Import Quotas, a most popular substitute for tariffs, are limits on the total Q of imports permitted.
Import Quotas
With quotas, importing countries have absolute assurance about import quantities. With tariffs, countries have less control over import volumes, since foreign exporters can cut prices to increase sales when they face tariffs.
Quotas
Analytically speaking, quotas are not better and are usually worse than tariffs.Total market supply is the domestic supply curve plus the fixed quota at all prices above the world price.
Pw
Sd
Sd + Quota
Imports, limited to the Quota,
simply shift the S curve out.
Quantities are determined
by the Intersection of D
and Sd + Quota.
Dd
Imports before quota
Imports after
But stop!
Lets compare this to a tariff and we will notice they are almost identical analyses.
Tariffs and Quotas Compared
This country has imposed a tariff. How would a quota look?
World Price
Wp plus tariff
Just add the quota to the supply curve
Sd + Quota
Sd
Quotas
Once again, we have the same net economic welfare situation illustrated by the areas in the strip abcd diagram
Pw
Sd
Sd + Quota
Dd
a b c d
Consumers lose areas a+b+c+d in consumers surplus,
World Price
a b c d
Sd
Sd + quota
Equilibrium price with
quota where
Dd = Sd + quota
Producers gain area a.
a b c d
Sd
Sd + quota
Government could collect area c auctioning import licenses.
World Price
a b c d
Sd
Sd + quota
Equilibrium price with
quota where
Dd = Sd + quota
Net national loss from the quota:at least areas b and d.
World Price
a b c d
Sd
Sd + quota
Equilibrium price with
quota where
Dd = Sd + quota
a b c d
b is the Production effect. This is a deadweight loss. Consumers
purchases are shifted to the more expensive, less-efficient
domestically produced product.
d is the consumption effect, also deadweight loss, resulting from
the reduction in consumption due to the higher price.
Sd
Sd + quota
Additional Quota Problems
First, the quota can create domestic and foreign monopoly power.
The domestic firm may have very high prices, and limited competing imports dont force prices down.
Additional Quota Problems
The foreign producers can tacitly collude and charge the domestic monopoly price.
Additional Quota Problems
Second, efficiency depends on how the rights to import are distributed. Import licenses can be allocated as follows:
1. by competing auctions (generates same as tariff revenues.
2. by sales (or bribes) by corrupt customs officials
Additional Quota Problems
3. by fixed favoritism some arbitrary method, e.g., on the basis of pre-quota sales proportions
4. by resource-using application procedures. Use the bureaucratic method, viz., queues.
Part III. Voluntary Export Restraints
Voluntary Export Restraints
Here, a major exporting partner is warned to restrict its sales in your country voluntarily.
Voluntary Export Restraints
The importing country says:
As you invade our market, you had better restrain yourself voluntarily, or our parliament will cream you with tariffs or quotas.
Voluntary Export Restraints
President Reagan did this with Japanese auto exporters.
Unwittingly, this is like saying,
You had better behave like a monopolist in our market! (Restrict your output and do what you will with your price.)
VERs, Quotas, and Free Trade, See Figure 8.2 in the text
A VER is, in effect, like a quota.
Lets compare the VER, quota, and free trade.
VERs, Quotas, and Free Trade,
Free Trade
Dm = demand for imports
Dm
Fs= foreign supply of Ms
Fs
Small Country Large country (w/monopsony power)
With free trade, both countries enjoy same consumers surplus
With free trade, both cases enjoy the same producers surplus.
VERs, Quotas, and Free Trade
Using a Quota
Dm = demand for imports
Dm
Fs= foreign supply of Ms
Fs
Small Country Large country (with monopsony power)
With a quota, the small country loses consumer surplus, but can get
the yellow area by auctioning import licenses.
With a quota, the large country gains the larger yellow box.
VERs, Quotas, and Free Trade
Using a Quota
Dm = demand for imports
Dm
Fs= foreign supply of Ms
Fs
Small Country Large country (with monopsony power)
With a quota, the exporter loses the larger green area of
producer surplus.
VERs, Quotas, and Free Trade
A VER is, in effect, like a quota.
Lets compare the three types of protectionVER, quota, and free trade.
Using a VER
Dm = demand for imports
Dm
Fs= foreign supply of Ms
Fs
Small Country Large country (with monopsony power)
With a VER, the small country loses consumer surplus. It gives
the yellow box to the foreign monopolist.
With a VER, the large country is like the small one, except
it gives its larger yellow box to the foreign monopolist.
Trade and Historical Societies
Contrast the cases of the USSR and China
The case of the Lamanites and Nephites
THE BOOK OF HELAMAN, CHAPTER 6
The righteous Lamanites preach to the wicked NephitesBoth peoples prosper during an era of peace and plenty
7And behold, there was peace in all the land, insomuch that the Nephites did go into whatsoever part of the land they would, whether among the Nephites or the Lamanites. 8And it came to pass that the Lamanites did also go whithersoever they would, whether it were among the Lamanites or among the Nephites; and thus they did have free intercourse one with another, to buy and to sell, and to get gain, according to their desire. 9And it came to pass that they became exceedingly rich, both the Lamanites and the Nephites; and they did have an exceeding plenty of gold, and of silver, and of all manner of precious metals, both in the land south and in the land north.
10Now the land south was called Lehi and the land north was called Mulek, which was after the son of Zedekiah; for the Lord did bring Mulek into the land north, and Lehi into the land south.
11And behold, there was all manner of gold in both these lands, and of silver, and of precious ore of every kind; and there were also curious workmen, who did work all kinds of ore and did refine it; and thus they did become rich.
12They did raise grain in abundance, both in the north and in the south; and they did flourish exceedingly, both in the north and in the south. And they did multiply and wax exceedingly strong in the land. And they did raise many flocks and herds, yea, many fatlings.
13Behold their women did toil and spin, and did make all manner of cloth, of fine-twined linen and cloth of every kind, to clothe their nakedness. And thus the sixty and fourth year did pass away in peace. 14And in the *sixty and fifth year they did also have great joy and peace, yea, much preaching and many prophecies concerning that which was to come. And thus passed away the sixty and fifth year.
And what was the result?
How well did the Nephites handle their wealth?
17For behold, the Lord had blessed them so long with the riches of the world that they had not been stirred up to anger, to wars, nor to bloodshed; therefore they began to set their hearts upon their riches; yea, they began to seek to get gain that they might be lifted up one above another; therefore they began to commit secret murders, and to rob and to plunder, that they might get gain.
18And now behold, those murderers and plunderers were a band who had been formed by Kishkumen and Gadianton.
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