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Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries
Key Elements
1. Intensity: how hard a person tries
2. Direction: toward beneficial goal
3. Persistence: how long a person tries
Motivation
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal.
What is Motivation?
Motivation and Performance
Motivation
Ability
Effort
Environment
Performance
3 Major Types of Motivation Theories
• Content Theories of Motivation– WHAT motivates us
• Process Theories of Motivation– WHY and HOW motivation occurs
• Reinforcement Theory– HOW outcomes influence behaviors
Content Perspectives on Motivation
• Content Perspectives– Approaches to motivation that try to answer the question,
“What factors in the workplace motivate people?”
• Content Perspectives of Motivation– Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs– Aldefer’s ERG Theory– McGregory’s Theory X and Theory Y– Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory– McClelland’s Achievement,
Power, and Affiliation Needs
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Self-Self-
actualizationactualization
EsteemEsteem
BelongingnessBelongingness
SecuritySecurity
PhysiologyPhysiologyFoodFood
AchievementAchievement
StatusStatus
FriendshipFriendship
StabilityStability
JobJob
FriendsFriends
PensionPension
BaseBase
NEEDSNEEDSGeneral ExamplesGeneral Examples Organizational ExamplesOrganizational Examples
jobjobChallengingChallenging
titletitle
at workat work
planplan
salarysalary
Assumptions of Maslow’s Hierarchy
Movement up the Pyramid
•Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied.
Maslow Application:
A homeless person
will not be motivated to
meditate!
Maslow Application:
A homeless person
will not be motivated to
meditate!
•Individuals therefore must move up the hierarchy in order
Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsA Content Perspective
• What factor or factors motivate people• Weakness of Theory
– Five levels of need are not always present– Order is not always the same– Cultural differences
• Need’s Hierarchy in China…an example:
– Belonging– Physiological– Safety– Self actualizing in service to society
Alderfer’s ERG TheoryA Content Perspective
• Existence needs– Physiological
• Relatedness needs – How one individual relates to his/her social
environment
• Growth needs– Achievement and self actualization
Alderfer’s ERG TheoryA Content Perspective
Satisfaction-ProgressionSatisfaction-Progression Frustration-RegressionFrustration-Regression
Growth NeedsGrowth Needs
Relatedness Relatedness NeedsNeeds
Existence NeedsExistence Needs
Content Theories
• McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y– Theory X
• Assumes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, avoid responsibility, and require close supervision.
– Theory Y• Assumes that workers can exercise self-direction,
desire responsibility, and like to work.
– Motivation is maximized by participative decision making, interesting jobs, and good group relations.
Content Theories
• Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory– Job satisfaction and job dissatisfaction are
created by different factors.• Hygiene factors: extrinsic (environmental) factors
that create job dissatisfaction.
• Motivators: intrinsic (psychological) factors that create job satisfaction.
– Attempted to explain why job satisfaction does not result in increased performance.
• The opposite of satisfaction is not dissatisfaction, but rather no satisfaction.
Herzberg’s Motivation-Hygiene Theory
Contrasting Views of Satisfaction-Dissatisfaction
McClelland’s Needs Theory
• Three-Needs Theory– There are three major acquired needs that are
major motives in work.– Need for achievement (nAch)
• The drive to excel and succeed
– Need for power (nPow)• The need to influence the behavior of others
– Need of affiliation (nAff)• The desire for interpersonal relationships
Pictures Used for Assessing Levels of nAch, nAff, and nPow
Process Perspectives of Motivation
• Why people choose certain behavioral options to satisfy their needs and how they evaluate their satisfaction after they have attained their goals.
• Process perspectives of Motivation– Goal Setting Theory– Equity Theory– Expectancy Theory
Goal-Setting TheoryA Process Perspective
Basic Premise: That specific and difficult goals, with self-generated feedback, lead to higher performance.
• Difficulty– Extent to which a goal is challenging and requires effort.
• Specificity– Clarity and precision of the goal.
Goal Achievement Depends on:• Acceptance
– Extent to which persons accept a goal as their own.• Commitment
– Extent to which an individual is personally interested in reaching a goal.
Equity Theory: A Process Perspective
• Individuals equate value of rewards to effort and compare it to other people.
Inputs/Outcomes Inputs/Outcomes Comparison of Comparison of self with othersself with others
EquityEquity
InequityInequity
Motivation to maintain Motivation to maintain current situationcurrent situation
Ways to reduce inequityWays to reduce inequity• Change inputsChange inputs• Change outcomesChange outcomes• Alter perceptions of selfAlter perceptions of self• Alter perceptions of otherAlter perceptions of other• Leave situationLeave situation• Change comparisonsChange comparisons
outcomes(selfoutcomes(self))inputs (self)inputs (self)
==outcomes outcomes
(other)(other)inputs (other)inputs (other)
Justice and Equity Theory
Distributive Justice
Perceived fairness of the outcome (the final
distribution).
“Who got what?”
Procedural Justice
The perceived fairness of the process used to
determine the outcome (the final distribution). “How was who gets what
decided?”Interactional Justice
The degree to which one is treated with dignity and respect.
“Was I treated well?”
Three types of Justice Three types of Justice
Expectancy TheoryThe Basic Idea
• People tend to prefer certain goals, or outcomes, over others.
• They anticipate experiencing feelings of satisfaction should such a preferred outcome be achieved.
• Basically, people are motivated to behave in ways that produce valued outcomes.
Expectancy TheoryA Process Perspective
• Motivation depends on how much we want something and how likely we are to get it– Elements
• Effort to Performance Expectancy (E) is the probability that effort will lead to performance.
• Performance to Outcome Expectancy (I) is the perception that performance leads to an outcome.
• Outcome is the consequence or reward for performance.• Valence (V) is how much a particular outcome is valued.
Expectancy TheoryA Process Perspective
M = E x I x V• For motivated behavior to occur:
– Effort-to-performance must be greater than 0– Performance-to-outcome must be greater
than 0– Sum of valences must be greater than 0*
* One or more valences may be negative!
The Expectancy Model of Motivation
Environment
Motivation Effort Performance
Ability
Outcome
Outcome
Outcome
Valence
Outcome Valence
Outcome Valence
Valence
Valence
High Effort
Decision toExert Effort
Low EffortPerformance
Goal
PerformanceGoal
Expectancy“What are my chances
of reaching my performance goalif I work hard?”
Expectancy“What are my chances
of reaching my performance goal
if I slack off?”
Instrumentality“What are my chances
of getting variousoutcomes if I achieve
my performance goal?”
Valence“How much do I value
these outcomes?”
Outcome 3
Outcome 2
Outcome 1
Outcome 3
Outcome 2
Outcome 1
A General Model of Vroom’s Expectancy Theory
Reinforcement Theory
Assumptions:
•Behavior is environmentally caused.
•Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.
•Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
Assumptions:
•Behavior is environmentally caused.
•Behavior can be modified (reinforced) by providing (controlling) consequences.
•Reinforced behavior tends to be repeated.
Argues that behavior is a function of its consequences.
Motivation: From Concepts to Applications
Chapter SEVEN
Job Design Theory
Characteristics:
1. Skill variety
2. Task identity
3. Task significance
4. Autonomy
5. Feedback
Characteristics:
1. Skill variety
2. Task identity
3. Task significance
4. Autonomy
5. Feedback
Job Characteristics Model
Identifies five job characteristics and their relationship to personal and work outcomes.
Job Design Theory (cont’d)
• Job Characteristics Model– Jobs with skill variety, task identity, task significance,
autonomy, and for which feedback of results is given, directly affect three psychological states of employees:
• Knowledge of results
• Meaningfulness of work
• Personal feelings of responsibility for results
– Increases in these psychological states result in increased motivation, performance, and job satisfaction.
The Job Characteristics Model
E X H I B I T 7–1E X H I B I T 7–1Source: J.R. Hackman and G.R. Oldham, Work Design (excerpted from pp. 78–80). © 1980 by
Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. Reprinted by permission of Addison-Wesley Longman, Inc.
Job Design Theory (cont’d)Skill Variety
The degree to which a job requires a variety of different activities (how may different skills are used in a given day, week, month?).Task Identity
The degree to which the job requires completion of a whole and identifiable piece of work (from beginning to end).
Task Significance
The degree to which the job has a substantial impact on the lives or work of other people.
Job Design Theory (cont’d)Autonomy
The degree to which the job provides substantial freedom and discretion to the individual in scheduling the work and in determining the procedures to be used in carrying it out.
Feedback
The degree to which carrying out the work activities required by a job results in the individual obtaining direct and clear information about the effectiveness of his or her performance.
Prentice Hall, 2003 34
Characteristics Examples
Skill Variety• High variety The owner-operator of a garage who does electrical repair, rebuilds engines,
does body work, and interacts with customers• Low variety A bodyshop worker who sprays paint eight hours a day
Task Identity• High identity A cabinetmaker who designs a piece of furniture, selects the wood, builds the
object, and finishes it to perfection• Low identity A worker in a furniture factory who operates a lathe to make table legs
Task Significance• High significance Nursing the sick in a hospital intensive care unit• Low significance Sweeping hospital floors
Autonomy• High autonomy A telephone installer who schedules his or her own work for the day, and
decides on the best techniques for a particular installation• Low autonomy A telephone operator who must handle calls as they come according to a
routine, highly specified procedure
Feedback• High feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then tests it to
determine if it operates properly• Low feedback An electronics factory worker who assembles a radio and then routes it to a
quality control inspector who tests and adjusts it
Examples of High and Low Job Characteristics
Computing a Motivating Potential Score
People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.
Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.
People who work on jobs with high core dimensions are generally more motivated, satisfied, and productive.
Job dimensions operate through the psychological states in influencing personal and work outcome variables rather than influencing them directly.
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