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Motivation & Work
Chapter 11
Mechanisms of Motivation
Motivation and Incentives
Motivationfactors within and outside an organism that cause it to behave a certain way at a certain time
Motivational state or drivean internal condition, which can change over time, that orients an individual to a specific set of goals (e.g., hunger, thirst, sex, curiosity)
Incentivesgoals or reinforcers in the external environment (e.g., good grades, food, a mate)
Needs
State within an organism that may energize behavior to satisfy a basic bodily functionAnimals do behave in accordance with their tissue needs (e.g., increasing or decreasing caloric intake, drive for salt)Homeostasis - the constancy of internal conditions that the body must actively maintainDrives may be an upset in homeostasis, inducing behavior to correct the imbalanceHowever, homeostasis cannot explain all drives
Sex and pain avoidance
Drives
Expression of motivation to satisfy a need or valued goalDrive-reduction Theory
Proposed by Clark HullYou have a need associated with mineral depletion in your tissues which triggers a drive to reduce that need which triggers a response (behavior) to achieve your goal.Need to reestablish balance or homeostasis
Types of Drives(instinctual vs. learned)
Primary (Regulatory) motivesInnate and survival helps preserve homeostasis (e.g., hunger, thirst, oxygen, sex, sleep, waste reduction, pain avoidance
Stimulus motivesPossibly innateActivity, curiosity, exploration, manipulation and physical contact
Secondary (Learned)Acquired through learningNeed for power, Need for Achievement (Nach), affiliation, approval, status, security, fear and aggression
Humanistic Theory
Abraham Maslow's hierarchy of needs Each successive level of the hierarchy is addressed only after the preceding level's needs have been met (concept of prepotency)
The ultimate goal is to reach self-actualization with complete fulfillment of potential and satisfaction of who you are
• Order of the levels progresses from the biological to psychological needs 1. Physiological needs: hunger and thirst
2. Safety needs: stable and secure environment
3. Belongingness needs: acceptance and love
4. Esteem needs: achievement and competence
Hierarchyof Needs
Hierarchy of Needs
The ultimate goal is self-actualization, which is complete fulfillment of one's potential
CriticismsExceptions to theory
Clear designation of levels
Self-Actualization
Instinct/Biological Theory William James (1890)
• Principles of Psychology
• People inherit social behavior instincts (love, sympathy, modesty, etc.) as well as survival instincts
Instincts: fixed, unlearned, genetically programmed patterns of behavior
• William McDougal - 18 Basic instincts
• Migrating behaviors and mating displays of birds
• Examples of human behaviors, including rooting, sucking, and grasping
Charles Darwin's evolutionary theory
• Behavior originates from instincts, adaptive survival behaviors
Motivation: Theories
Theory: Behavior originated from physiological needs Biological needs or tissue deficits lead to the drive state
Need to reestablish balance or homeostasis and strengthens the drive
Drives are internal conditions that relate to survival needs Needs that lead to the drive state include food, water, and air
The drive state builds as deprivation continues
Tissue imbalances create deficit and strengthen the drive
Behavior is geared to reduce the need or deficit Eating, drinking, and breathing
Above behaviors reduce the need by restoring balance or homeostasis (refer to lesson 2)
Behaviors are reinforced/strengthened through the reduction of needs
Drive-reduction Theory (Clark Hull)
Arousal Theory
Motivation relates to a person’s desire for stimulationPeople look for a balance (homeostatic)
Too little stimulation – boredomToo much stimulation- fear
Circadian RhythmsEspecially melatonin
Inverted UYerkes-Dodson LawOpponent-Process Theory
High Arousal
Arousal response - pattern of physiological change that helps prepare the body for “fight or flight”
muscles tense, heart rate and breathing increase, release of endorphins, focused attention
can be helpful or harmful
in general, high arousal is beneficial for instinctive, well-practiced or physical tasks and harmful for novel, creative, or careful judgment tasks
Relates to differing individual preferences for stimulation in their environment
Motivation is to achieve and maintain preferred levels of stimulation
• Individuals seek activities that create the desired level of physiological stimulation
• Individuals avoid activities that produce excessive stimulation
Yerkes-Dodson law states the relationship between task performance and levels of arousal
• Participants perform low-difficulty tasks better with higher than average arousal
• Participants perform moderate-difficulty tasks better with moderate arousal
• Participants perform high-difficulty tasks better with lower than
average arousal
Arousal Theory
Inverted U
Low arousal leads to poor performances (don’t care)
High arousal leads to poor performance (frozen)
Performance
Arousal Level
Yerkes-Dodson Law
Some arousal is necessaryHigh arousal is helpful on easy tasksAs level of arousal increases, quality of performance decreases with task difficultyToo much arousal is harmful
Degree of arousal
Qu
alit
y o
f p
erfo
rman
ce
Very difficult task
Moderatelydifficult task
Easy task
Yerkes-Dodson Law continued
The simpler the task, greater arousal may increase performance
Lifting weights
The more difficult/complex the task, the less arousal the better
Taking a complex economics test or hitting a putt
Opponent-Process Theory
Stimulus (skydiving) causes a strong emotion (fear) After a period of when stimulus ends the opposite emotion occurs at a greater rateA possible cause of addiction or addictive personalityThe need for greater fear leads to greater excitement
Motivation is produced by need for goal attainment Need for goal attainment or achievement may be wither intrinsic or extrinsic
Intrinsic motivation is based on internal need for achievement and internal reinforcements, such as positive feelings of accomplishmentInternal satisfaction causes behavior usually to satisfy a learned need such as NAch or the Need for Power or stimulus needExternal rewards to someone intrinsically motivated can reduce the pleasure (it becomes work and not fun)
• Overjustification Effect
Incentive Theory
Incentive Theory
Extrinsic motivation is based on more tangible external reinforcements from the environment•Occurs when extrinsic rewards are provided for a behavior that previously was motivated intrinsically
-Behavior decreases
Some incentive can cause no behavior to achieve goal (reduction of a need)
Hungry but won’t eat maggots
High incentives can cause behavior even when there is no need
Fear Factor – eat maggots for $50,000
Motivation is produced from internal conflict Beliefs that are in opposition often produce conflict (cognitive dissonance)
Beliefs counter to some behavior produce conflict
The individual is motivated to reduce the tension created by conflict
• Tension reduced by changing or modifying beliefs
• Tension reduced by changing or modifying behavior
Cognitive Consistency Theory(Leon Festinger)
Learned or Secondary Needs
Need for Achievement (NAch)Strive to do your bestIndividuals who have a high NAch want challenging but moderate tasks to accomplish that reinforce themIndividuals with low NAch try extremely difficult task that are almost impossible or extremely easy
• Excuse or always successful helps their esteem
Need For Power
Strong desire to have control
Must be visible to public
Often attracts individuals who are attracted to power not the person
When Motives Collide
Approach-Approach
Equally attracted to desirable goals and is difficult to choose
Approach-Avoidance
A goal has both a positive and negative
A shy person is invited to a great party but has to face fear of awkwardness
Avoidance-Avoidance
Must choose between two negative choices
Between the Devil and the Deep Blue Sea
Peer pressure-do something wrong or lose friends
Multiple Approach-Avoidance
Choosing between a couple of approach-avoidance choices
HomeostasisA Biological Perspective
Balance of bodily needs
Not too full, not too hungry
Bodily equilibrium which includes Metabolism rate
Insulin levels
Cellular fluids
Under the direction of the Hypothalamus
Drives as States of the Brain
The hub of many central drive systems lies in the hypothalamus
Cerebral cortex
Portion of
limbic system
Pituitary
gland Brainstem
Hypotahlamus
Hunger Drive
Two areas of the hypothalamus, the lateral and ventromedial areas, play a central role in the hunger drive
Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
Lateral Area
Electrical lesions to tract of axons connecting brainstem, hypothalamus and basal ganglia cause a loss of all goal-directed behavior
Stimulation causes drives in response to available incentives
Feeding system
It stimulates you to eat
On button
Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
Lateral Area
However, chemical lesions to specific cell bodies reduce hunger drive, but do not abolish it - most other drives appear normal
If damaged can cause an organism to starve to death
Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
Ventromedial Area
• Lesions alter digestive and metabolic processes
• Food is converted into fat rather than energy molecules, causing animal to eat much more than normal and gain weight
• Stop eating system Satiety System If damaged the organism
will severely overeat
Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus
Hunger Drive
• Other stimuli that act on the brain to increase or decrease hunger include satiety signals from the stomach signals indicating the amount of food molecules
in the blood leptin, a hormone indicating the amount of fat
in the body
Research on Weight Regulation and Dieting
• No consistent personality trait differences found between obese and non-obese people (e.g., willpower, anxiety)
• Dieters and obese are more likely to eat in response to stress than non-dieters
• Family environment of little importance in determining body weight - genetics plays a large role
• Number of fat-storage cells is a major determinant of body weight
Research on Weight Regulation and Dieting
• Fat cells are determined by genetics and food intake• They increase with weight gain, but merely shrink
with weight loss - may stimulate hunger • Weight loss causes a decline in basal metabolism
Fat cells
Normal
diet
High-fat
diet
Return to
normal diet
Effects of Culture and Habits on Body Weight
• Set point- cluster of genetic and environmental factors that cause a person’s weight to settle within a given range
• Weight can be affected by factors like diet, exercise, and daily habits (e.g., stairs instead of elevator)
• People who wish to lose weight need to increase their metabolism rate to be successful Metabolic Rate is the resting rate of energy
• Not eating will lead to yoyo dieting Your body protects itself from your attempts to starve it by
slowing your metabolism rate, causing you to burn fewer calories you normally eat after you quit dieting
Starving lowers your set point which causes you not burn all the calories you take in
Eating Disorders
• Anorexia Nervosa 15% below normal weight Cognitive issues- believes they are fat and
obsessed with losing weight• They do not see themselves as skinny• Often wear baggy clothes• Lie about food consumption• Damage to heart and stomach
• Bulimia Repeated bingeing and purging Vomit or use laxatives after a big meal Damage to throat, esophagus and stomach
Thirst
• Extracellular Thirst Water is lost from fluids around the cell Caused by vomiting, bleeding, diarrhea, sweating
and alcohol (hangovers) Solution- drink salty drinks- Gatorade
• Intercellular Thirst Fluid is drawn out of the cells Caused by salty meals Solution- drink water
Other Types of Non-Homeostatic Drives
• Episodic Pain avoidance Not a homeostatic drive Some believe can be avoided or blocked -can be learned
• Coolidge Effect Associated with the sex drive Animals tend to be affected by hormones Animals will only have sex when the female is in heat
(estrogen released) As you move up the evolutionary scale sex becomes less
motivated by hormones