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Salmonid production, Norwegian and global
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1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009
Val
ue (m
ill U
S $)
Prod
uced
(mill
ton
nes)
Production and value of Atlantic salmon and rainbow trout
Norway World Value (Norway) Value (World)
Advantages
• Availability and supply • Environmental profile • Low cost
Disadvantages
• Low nutrient density • Unbalanced AA profile • Taste • Antinutrients • No EPA or DHA
3
Potentials and challenges with plant ingredients
Fishmeal-free diets for salmonids
A: P-MIX1.0
B: C-MIX1.0
C: S-MIX1.0
0.0 0.0
0.0
FCR
0.780
0.788
0.799
0.8170.832
0.832
0.850
0.850
2
22
22
2
2 Feeding a combination of pea, potato and rapeseed protein gave similar growth performance as fishmeal
Feed efficiency
Source: APC, Zhang, 2012
Mixed model design Contour plot
Pea + potato
Soya Rapeseed +Potato
Bacteria Methylococcus capsulatus
Microbial ingredients in fish feeds Production
Yeast/Fungus Rhizopus oryzae
Many possible substrates: • Methane or methanol (e.g. natural gas or methane) • Co-products from forest industry and agriculture
- Lignocellulosic biomass • Sunlight + CO2
Microalgae Phaeodactylum, Chlorella,
Methylococcus capsulatus
Bacterial meal Value chain from natural gas to high-value feed resources for the production of human food
Bacterial meal (BM) is produced by aerobe fermentation: • Methanothroph bacteria and helper bacteria
• Methanol or Methane from natural gas
• Oxygen, ammonia, minerals
Crude protein (10% nucleic acids)
70%
Crude lipids (phospholipids) 10%
Carbohydrates 12%
Ash 7%
(Source: Øverland et al., 2011)
Growth (%/Day) and feed efficiency (Gain/Feed) of Atlantic salmon fed increasing levels of bacterial
meal
a
Level of bacterial meal (%)
a
b
ab
b
ab a
abc
c
bc
Source: Aas et al. 2006
Production of yeast from forest industry Lignocellulosic biomass
Mechanical pretreatment
Thermo-chemical pretreatment
Enzymatic hydrolyzes
Fermentation
Cellulose
Growth (%/day) and feed utilization (feed:gain) of salmon fed 30% yeast
APC, 2012, Øverland et al., unpublished
a
FM Yeast 1 Yeast 2 Yeast 3
Gain, %/day Kg feed / kg gain
Microalgae in fish feed Chemical characteristic of microalgae
Microalgae is produced by: • Heterotrophic or autotrophic production
• Freshwater or saltwater
• Lipid, protein and carbohydrate composition varies with production conditions
Crude protein
20 - 40%
Crude lipids 5 - 60%
Carbohydrates
Minerals, vitamins, carotenoids
Microalgae Phaeodactylum, Chlorella
Reseach on Microalgae in APC
1. Evaluation of nutritional value of : Nannochloropsis oceania, produced at UMB Isochtysis galbana from, Reed Mariculture, USA Phaeodactylum tricornutum, Fitoplankton Marino, Spain
Collaboration among APC; UMB, SINTEF, and Nofima
2. Evaluation of functional properties of microalgae 3. Chemical profiling of microalga from heterotrophic production Production of Nannochloropsis
oceania at UMB
Collaboration between APC and Nofima
Source: APC, Skrede et al., unpublished
Chemical composition of microalgae, % Nannochloropsis
Oceania Isochrysis galbana
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
High-quality fishmeal
Crude protein, % 47.7 20.1 49.0 74.7
Crude fat, % 8.4 16.2 7.4 9.7
EPA, C20:5 2.3 0.08 2.8 1.5-2.0
DHA, C22:6 - 1.6 0.02 0.7-1.3
Amino acids, g/16 g N
Lysine 4.8 3.1 4.2 6.8 Methionine 1.8 2.5 2.0 2.5
Tryptophan 1.7 2.5 1.3 0.7
Threonine 3.6 4.6 3.7 3.5
Valine 4.6 6.1 4.6 4.0
Isoleucine 3.5 5.1 3.8 3.7
Leucine 6.7 9.2 6.2 6.2
Phenylalanine 3.9 5.7 4.2 3.3
Arginine 4.9 4.1 4.4 5.4
Apparent crude protein digestibility of the algae products
Nannochloropsis
y = -0,5233x + 87,844R2 = 0,9966
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% C
P di
gest
ed
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
y = -0,0777x + 87,639R2 = 0,9853
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100% algae inclusion in feed
% C
P di
gest
ed
Isochrysis galbana
y = -0,69x + 87,806R2 = 0,9928
0
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100% algae inclusion in feed
% C
P di
gest
ed
The protein digestibility of the algae when extrapolating to 100% of protein from algae were: Phaeodactylum tricornutum: 79.9% Nannochloropsis oceania : 35.5% Isochrysis galbana : 18.8%
Apparent amino acid digestibility of LT fishmeal and the three algae products
N. Oceania
P. Tricornutum
I. galbana
LT fishmeal
Arg 41.2 87.4 56.8 93.6
His 17.2 76.6 37.1 88.9
Ile 30.3 75.9 63.5 92.4
Leu 30.9 81.6 68.6 93.0
Lys 38.1 84.5 12.6 86.8
Met 35.6 83.4 64.8 93.5
Trp 38.3 81.7 69.0 85.6
Phe 31.9 83.2 69.2 90.3
Thr 50.1 83.0 55.0 85.0
Val 31.6 82.2 62.5 91.4
Apparent crude fat digestibility of the algae products
Although the algae products represented a minor proportion of total dietary lipids some indications were observed: All algae products gave a reduction in lipid digestibility with increasing inclusion of algae lipids. Calculation of the digestibility of lipids in the algae products would result in negative digestibility.
Nannochloropsis
y = -0,5587x2 + 0,2459x + 98,032R2 = 0,9998
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100% algae inclusion in feed
% C
L di
gest
ed
Phaeodactylum tricornutum
y = -0,1732x2 - 0,2497x + 98,107R2 = 1
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0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100% algae inclusion in feed
% C
L di
gest
ed
Isochrysis galbana
y = -0,0746x2 - 0,1763x + 98,186R2 = 0,9988
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% C
L di
gest
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Functional properites in microalgae
.
Hypotheses: Certain microalgae may have beneficial health effects Soybean meal was used as a model to study gut health Feeding soybean meal results in: Enteritis in the distal intestine
Reduced feed intake, growth, and digestibility
Reduced enzyme activity and bile salt levels in the intestine
A: Fiskemel
B: Soyamel
Normal gut
Soy-induced enteritis
Foto: T. Landsverk
Microalgae in feed containing 20% SBM Degree of inflammation in distal intestine
0.0
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1.0
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2.0
SBM (Pos. ctrl.) FM (Neg. ctrl.) ALG (SBM + alga)
Deg
ree
of c
hang
es in
dis
tal i
ntes
tine
Diet
Leukocytes in Lamina PropriaEpithelial changesAtrophyOedema
+ + +
+
*
* *
*
*
*
**
* = different from SBM at p<0.01+ = different from FM at p<0.01
APC, 2012, unpublished
Feed, % FM SBM ALG
Fishmeal 71 51 29.5 Soybean meal 0 20 20
Microalgae - - 20
Conclusion - 1
• Microbes represent very promising feed ingredients
• They are sustainable feed resources - they do not require agricultural land, use little water (or recycling) and can be made from non-food raw materials
• Micro algae have some limitation concerning opening up the cell-walls and low digestibility of nutrients in several species
• Some microbes (both bacteria, yeast and microalgae) contain many interesting bioactive components that can give positive health effects
• The positive health effects are very species (and possibly also strain) specific
Conclusion - 2
• To be successful, microbial ingredients must have a high nutritional value (omega 3)/health benefits and be produced economically
• Revisions of EU regulations on microbial protein sources (Regulation (EC) No 767/2009) will facilitate further development and use of such products as feed ingredients
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