Malaysian Studies

The time when Europe first started discovering and exploring new lands, the Malay Peninsula was the focus of those Western powers. The Malay peninsula was first occupied by foreign powers when the Portugese defeated the Melaka Kingdom in 1511.From 1511 until the time when Malaya achieved independence on 31st August 1957, historical records show that the country was occupied by foreign powers for 446 years.Here are a few historical background of several armed struggle against the Colonialists which took place in Malaya from 1511 1900.

Portuguese Occupation

The Portuguese Conquest :

At the time of the Portuguese arrival in the Asian seas, Malacca, thanks to its strategic position on the strait bearing the same name, was a remarkable trading center for the trade and shunting of spices. At that time, Malacca was ruled by a Muslim Sultanate. The town extended its influence over a vast territory, which included the whole Malaya Peninsula. Its port was frequented by a multitude of ships and merchants from all the Asian nations of the time: Arabia, Persia, China, India, Japan, Indonesia, Ceylon, and Bengal. In it were gathered and sold all the Asian spices: pepper, cloves, ginger, cinnamon, nutmeg, etc. After their arrival in India, the Portuguese soon became aware of the importance of the city. An expedition sailed to Malacca in 1509 but failed, and many of the Portuguese were captured and imprisoned by the Sultan. In 1511, the ViceRoy of India, Afonso de Albuquerque, decided to organize an expedition destined to conquer Malacca. At the head of 1,100 1,200 men and 14 ships, Afonso de Albuquerque arrived in view of Malacca in June of 1511 and immediately demanded the rescue of the Portuguese that were taken prisoners in the 1509 expedition. The Sultan tried to gain time to strengthen the town defenses. He was well aware of the small number of Portuguese troops and was confident on his powerful army of 20,000 men and 2,000 guns.

Albuquerque wasted no time. At down of 25th July 1511, the Portuguese attacked the town concentrating the assault on the bridge on the river dividing the town. After a fierce battle the bridge was conquered by the Portuguese, but at nightfall they were forced to retreat. After some days of preparations, on 10 August 1511, the Portuguese renewed the attack. Albuquerque had the assistance of some Chinese junks that were anchored in the port. The use of a junk offered by the Chinese merchants was decisive, as this junk was used as a bridgehead. This time the attack was successful and the Portuguese finally succeeded in establishing a bridgehead in the town. There were then several days of siege in which the Portuguese bombarded the city. On 24 August 1511, the Portuguese again attacked only to discover that the Sultan had escaped. With Malacca was now in Portuguese hands, they sacked the town, but following Albuquerques orders, they respected the property of those who sided with them. B. W. Diffie and G. D. Winius in the book "Foundations of the Portuguese Empire 1415-1580" write: "the capture of Asia's greatest trading city by a mere 900 Portuguese and 200 Indians must rank as an event in the history of European expansion no less stunning than the better known conquest of Tenochtitlan by Hernando Cortes".

Malacca a Portuguese town:

Malacca was one of the three key-points, with Goa and Hormuz, which gave Portugal the control over the main Asiatic trade routes. After theconquest, Albuquerque immediately ordered the building of a fortress on the south side of the river. This fortress was called "A Famosa" and it was finished in November 1511.

The gate to Albuquerques fortress "A Famosa". Here, the Vice Roy ordered the erection of a large stone monument inscribed with the names of the men having taken part in the exploit.

Ruy de Brito Patalim was appointed Captain of the "Fortaleza de Malacca" and about 500 Portuguese soldiers were left as garrison. Shortly thereafter, Albuquerque prepared the ships for the return with the Malaccas booty. However, during the return voyage to Goa his ship "Flor do Mar" sank during a storm and all the treasures fetched in Malaccas were lost. Several Florentine merchants took part in the Portuguese enterprises in Asia. Amongst them, Giovanni da Empoli, was present in Malacca during the siege and the conquest. He described his experiences in an interesting letter to his father. After the conquest of Malacca, Portugals policy in the Malaya Peninsula was either to establish alliances with local rulers or to convince the adjoining Kingdoms to accept Portuguese suzerainty. From his base at Johore, the old Sultan of Malacca repeatedly attacked Malacca in 1517, 1520, 1521 and in 1525. At last, in 1583, a peace treaty was signed. Malacca was repeatedly under siege in 1550, 1567, 1571 and the main enemies were Johore and Atjeh (in Sumatra). In Malacca, Albuquerque established a new administration, minted a new currency and built a wooden chapel close to the fortress. Adjoining the fortress, a stone church dedicated to "Nossa Senhora da Anunciada" was erected in 1521, and later to "Nossa Senhora da Assumpcao". On 4 February 1558 this church was consecrated as a Cathedral.Many Portuguese "Casados", mostly artisans, merchants or farmers, settled in Malacca. In 1532, the Confraria da Misericordia was founded and a beautiful wooden hospital for the poor was also built. The church also started a school. Active missionary work began in 1545 with the arrival of St. Francisco Xavier. In 1552 was set up the "Camara" (Municipal Council) of Malacca.

In 1602-1603 the Dutch blockaded Malacca by sea, but this was only a first timid attempt. In 1606 Johore and the Dutch concluded an alliance against the Portuguese and in 1607 they set again the town under siege. Reinforcements from Goa aborted the attempt. Eredia estimated that the Christian population in Malacca in 1613 was around 7.400. There were eight parishes in the town. In 1629 Atjeh made a new great effort, but this time again the Portuguese were victorious. The Dutch made several fruitless attempts between 1623 and 1627, and in 1633 a blockade was set up. At the time of the Dutch attack in June 1640, there was, in Malacca, a garrison of about 50 Portuguese soldiers, more than 300 Portuguese "Casados" with their families and 2,000 or 3,000 Mestizos and Native inhabitants.The last siege of Portuguese Malacca begun in June 1640 when a combined Dutch-Johore fleet of 1,500 Dutchmen, 1,500 Malays, 12 Dutch ships, 6 sloops and 40 Johore vessels was sight off the Malacca port. The siege was extremely hard and nearly 1,500 Dutchmen lost their lives. After five months of siege, the Portuguese defenders were without gunpowder and with a severe scarcity of food. Despite the dificulties, under the command of Dom Manuel de Sousa Coutinho, which was sick, they were able to hold out the siege. On 14 January 1641, Dutch commander Willmsoon Kartekoe ordered the last desperate assault. The Portuguese defenders made a fierce final resistance in the Fortaleza Velha and the Dutch were finally driven back. In desperation, the Dutch commander offered to the Portuguese honourable terms of surrender. The brave (and dying) Portuguese commander accepted the generous terms. Dying two days later, he was buried by the Dutch with military honours in the church of Santo Domingo. The city of Malacca was thus in Portuguese hands from 24 August 1511 till 14 January 1641.

Dutch OccupationIn the early 17th century, the Dutch East India Company (Dutch: Verenigde Oostindische Compagnie, VOC) began the campaign to destroy Portuguese power in the East. At that time, the Portuguese had transformed Malacca into an impregnable fortress (the Fortaleza de Malaca), controlling access to the sea lanes of the Straits of Malacca and the spice trade there. The Dutch started by launching small incursions and skirmishes against the Portuguese. The first serious attempt was the siege of Malacca in 1606 by the third VOC fleet from the Dutch Republic with eleven ships, under Admiral Cornelis Matelief de Jonge that led to the naval battle of Cape Rachado. Although the Dutch were routed, the Portuguese fleet of Martim Afonso de Castro, the Viceroy of Goa, suffered heavier casualties and the battle rallied the forces of the Sultanate of Johor in an alliance with the Dutch and later on with the Acehnese.The Dutch with their local allies assaulted and wrested Malacca from the Portuguese in January 1641. This combined Dutch-Johor effort effectively destroyed the last bastion of Portuguese power, removing their influence in the Malay archipelago. As per the agreement with Johor in 1606, the Dutch took control of Malacca and agreed not to seek territories or wage war with the Malay kingdoms.

The Dutch Square, with Christ Church (left, built in 1753) and the Stadthuys (right).

Resistance in Naning

The Naning War was a 2-year war that started in 1831, when Abdul Said, the 19th-century Malay Penghulu of Naning, refused to subscribe to British's taxation policy and pay 10% of its produce as tribute to Melaka. Founded in 1641, Naning was one of the original 9 states of Negeri Sembilan. It did pay an annual tribute to the Dutch, when the Dutch ruled Melaka.2. First attack on Naning: Abdul Said's (also known as Dol Said) defiance led the British to send 150 soldiers, led by Captain Wyllie, on 15 July 1831 to capture Naning. Naning however successfully defended itself guerrilla-style with aid from other Malay allies, which includes Seri Menanti, Sungai Ujong, Johol, and Muar. There were no roads and the British had to fight in swamps and padi fields. The British soldiers were constantly ambushed and so were forced to retreat.3. Second attack on Naning: The British leaders were too ashamed to be defeated by the tiny state of Naning and realizing that Naning could not be easily attacked, they requested reinforcement from Yamtuan Muda Raja Ali in Rembau. Raja Ali agreed to assist the British with 600 troops. Led by Colonel Herbert, the British sent a larger force of 1,200 troops in March 1832 to defeat Abdul Said's force. In the second attack, Naning failed to receive military aid from its neighbors. This failure, together with the presence of a huge British expedition, forced Abdul Said to retreat to Sri Menanti before surrendering himself, effectively ending the war. Abdul Said was sent to Melaka where he lived until his death. This time, Abdul Said was defeated and was sent to Melaka where he lived until his death. The British then combined Melaka and Naning. It had cost the British a huge amount of money to capture Naning only to collect a very small payment.

Resistance in SelangorIn 1849, Raja Sulaiman, the Klang district ruler, passed away. The Sultan of Selangor then gave away Klang to Raja Abdullah, effectively brushing aside Raja Mahadi who was Raja Sulaimans son. This caused feud between them both. In 1867, Raja Mahadi successfully drove Raja Abdullah out of Klang. When Raja Abdullah died, his son Raja Ismail continued the feud.In 1868, the Sultan of Selangor appointed Tengku Kudin as the Viceroy of Selangor to stop the dispute. However, Tengku sided with Raja Ismail and helped him retake Klang in 1870. The British also offered assistance and support to Raja Ismail and Tengku Kudin, further adding to the opposition against Raja Mahadi.Although the situation in Selangor seemed like a civil war, it was through the involvement of the British that Raja Mahadi started rallying for support against the British.Resistance in PerakBritish influence in Perak, a state in northwestern Malaysia, began in 1818 when trading agreements were first made with local chiefs. The Pangkor Treaty of 1874 allowed Britain to send its first resident, James W.W. Birch (d. 1875), to take charge of governmental administrative affairs. Soon after his arrival later in 1874, Birch changed many old-fashioned and inefficient procedures and policies, especially those concerning revenue collection and slavery.The Perak War (1875-1876) erupted when Sultan Abdullah Shah II, the Sultan of Perak and other local chiefs attempted to end foreign influence in the region and remove James W.W. Birch. The locals thought that James Birch would have limited powers but Birch felt that he could do as he liked.In 1875, Maharaja Lela killed Birch at Pasir Salak with the support of the Sultan and the Chiefs. In retaliation, the British sent 300 troops from Singapore, India, and Hong Kong to end local resistance. Maharaja Lela was executed, while Sultan Abdullah and Ngah Ibrahim, the chief of Larut (present-day Taiping), were exiled to Seychelles, an island country spanning an archipelago of 115 islands in the Indian Ocean, some 1,500 km east of mainland Africa. Raja Ismail, who had claimed to be the Perak ruler, was exiled to Johor. The British then made Raja Yusuf the Sultan of Perak.

Resistance in PahangThe cause was because of the suspicion and dissatisfaction of the Orang Besar Pahang and the Orang Kaya Semantan towards the British interference on their territories. Dissatisfaction amongst the local leaders and their people sparked off a rebellion in December 1891. Three local figures, Dato Bahaman, Mat Kilau and Tok Gajah led the resistance which consisted of 700 men, including 100 Orang Asli (aborigines). The first revolt failed and Dato Bahaman retreated to Kelantan in 1892. He then launched a second assault in 1892, which failed when Dato Bahaman and his followers were defeated. They surrendered in 1895. Dato Bahaman then fled to Siam, while Tok Gajah and Mat Kilau went to Terengganu.

Resistance in Sarawak

James Brooke's expansion policy caused disturbance in many parts of Borneo. In the initial agreement between James Brooke and the Sultan of Brunei, Sarawak was only a territory which stretched from Tanjung Datu to Maong River (Sungai Maong). Syarif's territory was far away from the designated area. Brooke's encroachment into local leaders' territory caused many locals to rebel, including Syarif Masahor.James Brooke departed for England at the end of 1857, leaving his nephew Charles behind to monitor the rule. This allowed Masahor to put his plans into action. In July 1859, Masahor and his army attacked Brooke's outpost near Bukit Rejang in Kanowit. During this attack, officers Charles Fox and Henry Steele were killed by Melanau people led by Sawing and Sakalai. This angered the British people throughout Kuching following the rebellion by the Chinese people.In early 1860, Masahor ordered Temenggung Hayim Jalil from Brunei to go to Pontianak for a meeting with Abdul Gapur. In early February 1860 they mounted an assault on Kuching (at that time, Sarawak), according to Masahor's plan. Masahor and his army wanted to approach Kuching via the Sarawak River. In the battle that ensued, the British forces gained the upper hand when Charles Brooke succeeded in ambushing and destroying all Masahor's ships. Facing defeat, Masahor retreated to Brunei, where he would seek shelter from the British.However, in 1861, James Brooke went to Brunei, in hopes of forcing the Sultan of Brunei to banish Syarif Masahor to Selangor once and for all. Masahor eventually arrived at Klang, where he became an adviser to Sultan Abdul Samad.During the Klang War however, Syarif Masahor sided with the rebellious Klang territorial chief Raja Mahadi who did not recognise Sultan Abdul Samad's rule. Abdul Samad sought British help to win the war, and Masahor ended up fighting against the British for a second time. Nevertheless, after the surrender of Raja Mahadi and Syarif Masahor, they were both pardoned by Abdul Samad. Syarif Masahor died in Kerling, Selangor in 1890 and was buried there.

Resistance in SabahMat Salleh was the son of a local officer who was of Bajau and Sulu descent. He was a trader and was also known as a warrior. The main causes of this revolt were said to be British activities which burdened the locals, as well as the restrictions placed on the local leaders.By the end of 1894, the rebellion started in Sungai Sugut. In August 1895, a British team led by Barraut Resident attacked Mat Sallehs village. He retaliated by burning the town of Pulau Gaya, which destroyed the house and office of the Resident of Ambong. However, Mat Salleh was eventually killed in a skirmish on 31st January 1900.