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KEY INDICATOR TOOLS FOR SHALLOW SLOPE
FAILURE USING SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES
SIGNATURES AND SOIL COLOR VARIABLES
BY
MOHD SHAH IRANI BIN HASNI
A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for
the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Halal Industry
International Institute of Halal Research and Training
International Islamic University Malaysia
JUNE 2018
ii
ABSTRACT
Slope failure has become a major concern in Malaysia due to the rapid development
and urbanization in the country. It poses severe threats to any highway construction
industry, residential areas, natural resources, as well as tourism activities. The extent
of damages resulted from this catastrophe can be lessened if a long-term early warning
system to predict landslide prone areas is implemented. Thus, this study aimed to
develop key indicator tools to predict shallow slope failure based on soil chemical
properties and soil color variables. The concentration of each soil properties and
chromaticity in both stable and unstable slope soil samples was evaluated using ICP-
MS and Remote DRA Cary-50 chroma meter from two different localities that consist
of 120 soil samples located along the South Highway (PLUS) and the East Coast
Highway (LPT). This study established a marked difference (P<0.0001) of positive
correlation between soil properties concentrations and slope failures. Soil texture, total
organic carbon (TOC), soil pH, iron oxide and aluminium concentration were the
environmental variables that strongly correlated with soil color variables at the studied
area. Indicators that could be used to predict shallow slope failure were high value of
L* (62), low values of c* (20) and h* (66) with indication between 5 YR to 10 YR,
low concentration of iron (53 mgkg-1) and aluminium oxide (37 mgkg-1), low soil total
organic carbon (0.5%), low soil cation exchange capacity (3.6 cmol/kg), slightly
acidic (pH 4.9), high amount of sand fraction (68 %) and low amount of clay fraction
(20%) in soil particles. The reactions and distinctive changes of soil properties
between stable and unstable slopes were emphasized as results of highly significant
differences were perceived between soil properties, the locations, slope stability and
combinations of all interactions. By identifying the key factors controlling slope
stability, a greater understanding of how the properties of Oxisols influenced the slope
stability in response to interactions with environmental factors would be gained.
Besides, the control of such damaging effects would require proper soil conservation
strategies such as proper land leveling, afforestation, fallowing, terracing and
inclusion of restorative vegetation on the slopes. Therefore, new rating system for
shallow slope failure can be developed by implementing these findings as key
indicators. The approach of using soil properties to predict the landslide prone areas
has never been verified in highway construction industry and also in other industries
in Malaysia. This approach is appropriate to be implemented as an indicator to
categorize the prospective areas of unstable slopes and simultaneously helps in
improving slope stability and safety for future development. Additionally, the mass
movement also can be avoided by identifying the areas with the probability of
experiencing slope failures at the preliminary phase of development.
iii
البحث ملخصABSTRACT IN ARABIC
أصبح انهيار المنحدرات مصدر قلق كبير في ماليزيا والذي نتج بسبب التطور السريع والتحضر في البلاد. تشكل انهيار فة إلى الأنشطة المنحدرات تهديدا خطيرا على قطاع بناء الطرق السريعة، والمناطق السكنية، والموارد الطبيعية، وبالإضا
السياحية. بالإمكان تقليل مدى الأضرار الناتجة عن هذه الكوارث عن طريق تطبيق أنظمة إنذار مبكر طويل الأمد للتنبؤ بالمناطق المعرضة للانهيارات الأرضية. هدفت هذه الدراسة إلى تطوير أدوات للمؤشرات الرئيسية من أجل التنبؤ
عتماد على اخووا الكيميائية للرببة ومتييرات ألوان الرببة. م تقيي تركيز كل من بانهيار المنحدرات المنخفضة بالاخصائص الرببة ولونيتها في عينات تربة المنحدرات المستقرة واليير المستقرة باستخدام المطياف الكتلي البلازمي بالتقارن
عينة ترابية تقع على طول اخوط 120من لمنطقتين مختلفتين والتي تكونت DA Cary-50 ( ومقياسICP-MSالحثي )للارتباط (P <0.0001) (. أثبتت هذه الدراسة فرقا واضحا LPT) و خط الساحل الشرقي (PLUS) الجنوبي السريع
(، TOCالإيجابي بين تراكيز خصائص الرببة، ونهيار المنحدرات. كانت متييرات قوام الرببة، والكربون العضوي الكلي )الرببة، وتراكيز أكسيد الحديد والألمنيوم البيئية مرتبطة بقوة مع متييرات لون الرببة في المنطقة المدروسة. ودرجة الحموضة
* h( و 20*) c(، وقي 62*) Lالمؤشرات التي بالامكان استخدامها للتنبؤ بانهيار المنحدرات المنخفضة كانت: قيمة 37مغ/كي ( وأكسيد الألومنيوم ) 53منخفض للحديد ) ، وتركيز YR 10إلى YR 5( منخفضة مع مؤشر بين 66)
سنتيمرب/كج ( 3.6( ، وسعة تبادل الكاتيون المنخفض )٪0.5مغ/كي ( ، وإجمالي الكربون العضوي المنخفض للرببة ) 20(، وكمية منخفضة من أجزاء الطين )%68درجة حموضة( ، وكمية كبيرة من أجزاء الرمل ) 4.9، والحمضية قليلا )
في جزيئات الرببة. م الربكيز على التفاعلات والتيييرات المميزة خوصائص الرببة بين المنحدرات المستقرة وغير المستقرة ( ٪كنتائج بفروق ذات دلالة معنوية بين خصائص الرببة، والمواقع، وثبات المنحدرات، ومزيج جميع التفاعلات. سيت فه
تقرار المنحدر استجابة للتفاعلات مع العوامل البيئية بشكل أفضل من الأوكسيسولات على اس كيفية تأثير خصائصخلال تحديد العوامل الرئيسية التي تتحك في استقرار المنحدرات. وبالإضافة إلى ذلك فإن التحك في هذه التأثيرات
حريج، والإراحة، وعمل الضارة يتطلب اسرباتيجيات سليمة للمحافظة على الرببة مثل التسوية المناسبة للأراضي، والتالمصاطب، وإدراج النباتات الداعمة على المنحدرات. لذلك بالإمكان تطوير نظام تصنيف جديد بانهيار المنحدرات المنخفضة عن طريق تطبيق هذه النتائج كمؤشرات رئيسية. لم يت من قبل استخدام خصائص الرببة للتنبؤ بالمناطق
بارها في قطاع بناء الطرق السريعة وفي القطاعات الأخرى في ماليزيا. هذه الطريقة المعرضة للانهيارات الأرضية واختمناسبة للتطبيق كمؤشر لتصنيف المناطق المحتملة لحوادث المنحدرات اليير مستقرة، وتساعد في الوقت نفسه في تقوية
ه بالإمكان تجنب الحركة الكتلية عن طريق استقرار المنحدرات وتحسين السلامة للتنمية المستقبلية. بالإضافة إلى ذلك فإن .تحديد المناطق المحتمل انهيار منحدراتها في المراحل الأولية من التطوير
iv
APPROVAL PAGE
The dissertation of Mohd Shah Irani Bin Hasni has been approved by the following:
__________________________________
Rashidi Othman
Supervisor
__________________________________
Zainul Mukrim bin Baharuddin
Co-Supervisor
__________________________________
Internal Examiner
__________________________________
External Examiner
__________________________________
External Examiner
__________________________________
Chairperson
v
DECLARATION
I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigation, except
where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently
submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.
Mohd Shah Irani Bin Hasni
Signature…………………....………. Date …….……………….
vi
COPYRIGHT
INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA
DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF
FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH
KEY INDICATOR TOOLS FOR SHALLOW SLOPE FAILURE
USING SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES SIGNATURES AND
SOIL COLOR VARIABLES
I declare that the copyright holder of this dissertation are jointly owned by the
student and IIUM.
Copyright © 2018 Mohd Shah Irani Bin Hasni and International Islamic University Malaysia. All
rights reserved.
No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,
or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,
recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder
except as provided below
1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may
be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.
2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print
or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.
3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieved system
and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other
universities and research libraries.
By signing this form, I acknowledged that I have read and understand the IIUM
Intellectual Property Right and Commercialization policy.
Affirmed by Mohd Shah Irani Bin Hasni
……..…………………….. ………………………..
Signature Date
vii
DEDICATION
This dissertation is dedicated to my beloved parents
viii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
In the Name of Allah, the Most Beneficent and the Most Merciful,
All the praises and thanks to Allah (SWT), to whom ultimately we depend for
sustenance, guidance and the Creator who is ultimate source of knowledge and
wisdoms endowed to mankind.
It is my ardent hope that the thesis I wrote will be benefited by others who
possess the interest and passion to study on slope soil properties. All the methods and
techniques had been explained in detail with diagrams and features. I wish one day my
findings will contribute to a significant use for the state government especially relating
to catastrophe management of slope failure. It also can generate other novel ideas to
prevent slope failure by controlling soil properties index either by engineering or other
technologies.
Special thanks goes to my enthusiastic supervisor, Associate Professor Dr.
Rashidi bin Othman and Co-supervisor, Assistant Professor Dr. Zainul Mukrim bin
Baharuddin. My research has been an amazing experience and I thank them
wholeheartedly, not only for their tremendous academic support, but also for giving
me plenty of wonderful opportunities and always dedicated to assist me in solving the
confusions and guide me to the right path towards the final result of the thesis.
In addition, I would love to express my gratitude to my beloved parents for
their never-ending love, prayers and unstoppable supports, as well as giving me a
great deal of inspiration throughout my study periods. I acknowledge with gratitude of
her help and lots of love dedicated to my wife Nor Syazwani Binti Mustafa, who
patiently endured the recital of my thesis at any hour of the days and nights, and who
often saved me from grave mistakes and also to my siblings who always supported me
along my research journey.
In addition, I would like to thank my dearest workmates, Siti Zubaidah Abu
Kassim, Qurratu Aini Mat Ali, Nor Hidayah Noh, Fatimah Azzahra Zaifuddin,
Razanah Ramya, Farah Ayuni Mohd Hatta, Azlen Hanifah, Wan Syibrah Hanisah
Wan Sulaiman, Hur Hanie Mohd Latiff, Ruhul Izzati Shaharuddin as well as Hafizana
Mat Jusoh (Science Officer of Herbarium Lab, KAED) and every single person who I
could not mention their names one by one who always gave me sincere advices and
being supportive in finishing my thesis entitled, “Key Indicator Tools for Shallow
Slope Failure Assessment Using Soil Chemical Properties Signatures and Soil Color
Variables”.
Lastly, this thesis is humbly dedicated to the Ministry of Higher Education
who had granted me the scholarship to pursue my PhD’s study at International
Institute for Halal Research and Training (INHART), International Islamic University
Malaysia.
Alhamdulillah…
ix
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Abstract ........................................................................................................................ ii Abstract in Arabic ........................................................................................................ iii Approval Page .............................................................................................................. iv
Declaration ................................................................................................................... v Copyright ..................................................................................................................... vi Dedication .................................................................................................................... vii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... viii
List of Tables ............................................................................................................... xiii List of Figures .............................................................................................................. xvi List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................... xx
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 1 1.1 Research Background: Soil Erosion and Global Agenda ........................... 1
1.1.1 Soil Erosion and Highway Construction Industry ............................ 3 1.2 Problem Statement and Issues .................................................................... 5
1.3 Research Goal ............................................................................................. 9 1.4 Research Objectives.................................................................................... 9
1.5 Research Questions ..................................................................................... 10 1.6 Research Scope and Limitations ................................................................. 10
1.7 Research Significance ................................................................................. 11
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................... 13 2.1 Environment and Islamic Perspectives ....................................................... 13 2.2 Slope Failure as Environmental Issue......................................................... 16
2.2.1 Slope Failure in Malaysia ................................................................. 17 2.2.2 Cases of Slope Failure in Malaysian Highway ................................. 20
2.2.3 Examples of Slope Failures Occurrences in Malaysian
Highway............................................................................................ 23
2.2.3.1 Rock Slope Failure at Bukit Lanjan, 2003 ........................... 23 2.2.3.2 Slope failure at KM302 Gua Tempurung, North South
Highway ............................................................................... 24
2.2.3.3 Landslide at Karak Highway: KM52.5 Jalan Lentang -
Bukit Tinggi ......................................................................... 25 2.2.3.4 General Classification of Slope ............................................ 25
2.2.4 Factors That Influence Slope Stability .............................................. 28
2.2.5 Types of Slope Failure ...................................................................... 30 2.2.6 Shallow Slope Failure ....................................................................... 32 2.2.7 Identification of Contributing and Triggering Factors ...................... 34
2.3 Soil as Important Component of the Slope ................................................. 37 2.3.1 Soil Formation................................................................................... 37
2.3.2 Soil Horizons..................................................................................... 39 2.3.3 Factors Affecting Soil Properties Development ............................... 41 2.3.4 Common soil types in the landslide-prone area ................................ 44
2.4 Oxisols Properties ....................................................................................... 45 2.4.1 Chemical Properties of Oxisols......................................................... 49
x
2.4.1.1 Heavy Metal and Micronutrient Contents in relation to
Oxisols .................................................................................. 49 2.4.1.2 Soil CEC Contents in relation to Oxisols ............................. 50
2.4.1.3 Soil Total Organic Carbon (TOC) in relation to
Oxisols .................................................................................. 51 2.4.1.4 Soil pH in relation to Oxisols ............................................... 52
2.4.2 Physical Properties of Oxisols .......................................................... 55 2.4.2.1 Soil Texture Concentration in relation to Oxisols ................ 55
2.4.2.2 Soil Color Intensity in relation to Oxisols ............................ 57 2.4.3 Ferrallization/Laterization in relation to Oxisols .............................. 60
2.5 Current Slope Stabilisation Techniques and Assessment Systems ............. 61 2.5.1 Current Slope Stabilization Techniques and Technology ................. 61
2.5.2 Slope Assessment Systems ............................................................... 63 2.5.3 Research Gaps ................................................................................... 65
CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS ......................................... 73 3.1 Study Areas and Sites Sampling ................................................................. 73
3.1.1 The North–South Expressway (PLUS) ............................................. 73 3.2 Method of Soil Sampling ............................................................................ 78
3.2.1 Soil Sample Preparation .................................................................... 79 3.3 ICP-MS Analysis of Heavy Metals and Micronutrients Content ............... 81
3.3.1 Acid Digestion .................................................................................. 81 3.3.2 Heavy Metal and Micronutrient Analysis ......................................... 83
3.4 Analysis of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) Concentration by Using
Walkley and Black Method ........................................................................ 89 3.5 Analysis of Soil CEC Concentration by Ammonium Acetate.................... 91
3.6 Analysis of Soil pH Concentration by a Digital pH Meter ......................... 92 3.7 Analysis of Soil Texture Concentration by Pipette Method ....................... 93
3.8 Analysis of Soil Color Intensity ................................................................. 95 3.8.1 Analysis of soil colours intensity by using Munsell Soil Color
Chart ................................................................................................. 95
3.8.2 Analysis of soil colors intensity by using CIELAB
spectrophotometer ............................................................................ 96 3.9 Statistical Analysis...................................................................................... 98
CHAPTER FOUR: CHARACTERIZATION OF HEAVY METAL
CONTENT AND COMPOSITION IN OXISOLS OF STABLE AND
UNSTABLE SLOPES ................................................................................................ 99 4.1 Objective of the Experiment ....................................................................... 99
4.2 Analysis of Heavy Metal Content and Composition of Oxisols in
Response to Stable and Unstable Slopes .................................................... 100 4.2.1 Analysis of Aluminium (Al) Content................................................ 101 4.2.2 Analysis of Iron (Fe) Content ........................................................... 102 4.2.3 Analysis of Chromium (Cr) content.................................................. 103
4.2.4 Analysis of Manganese (Mn) Content .............................................. 104 4.2.5 Analysis of Lead (Pb) Content .......................................................... 105 4.2.6 Analysis of Zinc (Zn) Content .......................................................... 106 4.2.7 Analysis of Copper (Cu) Content...................................................... 107
4.2.8 Analysis of Nickel (Ni) Content ....................................................... 108
xi
4.3 Summary of the Results .............................................................................. 109
CHAPTER FIVE: INFLUENCE OF pH LEVEL, TOTAL ORGANIC
CARBON (TOC), SOIL CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY (CEC) AND
CALCIUM (CA) CONTENT IN OXISOLS ON STABLE AND
UNSTABLE SLOPES ................................................................................................ 110 5.1 Objective of the Experiment ....................................................................... 110 5.2 Analysis of Soil pH, Total Organic Carbon (TOC), Cation Exchange
Capacity (CEC) and Calcium Content in Oxisols of Stable and
Unstable Slopes .......................................................................................... 111 5.2.1 Analysis of Soil pH ........................................................................... 111 5.2.2 Analysis of Soil Total Organic Carbon (TOC) ................................. 112
5.2.3 Analysis of Soil Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) .......................... 113 5.2.4 Analysis of Calcium (Ca) Content .................................................... 114
5.3 The Relationships between Calcium Content, Soil CEC, Total
Organic Carbon (TOC) and Soil pH In Stable and Unstable Slopes
of Oxisols. ................................................................................................... 116 5.4 The Relationships between Heavy Metal Content, Soil CEC, Total
Organic Carbon (TOC) and Soil pH in Stable and Unstable Slopes
of Oxisols. ................................................................................................... 116 Summary of the Results .................................................................................... 117
CHAPTER SIX: SOIL COLOR INTENSITY, REFLECTANCE
COLORIMETER VALUE AND SOIL TEXTURE INTERACTIONS OF
OXISOLS AT STABLE AND UNSTABLE SLOPES ............................................ 120 6.1 Objectives of the Experiment ..................................................................... 120
6.2 Assessment of Soil Colour Intensity of Oxisols at Stable and
Unstable Slopes .......................................................................................... 120
6.3 Analysis of Reflectance Colorimeter Measurement of Oxisols at
Stable and Unstable Slopes ........................................................................ 125 6.3.1 Analysis of CIELAB L* (Lightness) value....................................... 130
6.3.2 Analysis of CIELAB a* (Red-Green axis) value .............................. 130
6.3.3 Analysis of CIELAB b* (Yellow-Blue Axis) value ......................... 131 6.3.4 Analysis of CIELAB c* (Chroma) value .......................................... 132 6.3.5 Analysis of CIELAB h* (Hue) value ................................................ 133 6.3.6 Overall CIELAB Soil Color Value Analysis .................................... 134
6.4 Analysis of Soil Texture Interactions of Oxisols at Stable and
Unstable Slopes .......................................................................................... 135 6.5 Relationships between Soil Texture and Soil Color ................................... 136
6.6 Relationships between CIELAB Spectrophotometer and Munsell
Soil Color Chart .......................................................................................... 138 6.7 Relationships between Clay, Silt, Sand, Soil Color, TOC, CEC,
Heavy Metal and Micronutrient Concentration .......................................... 139 6.8 Relationships between Cielab L*, A*, B*, C* and H* .............................. 141
6.9 Summary of the Results .............................................................................. 142
CHAPTER SEVEN: RESULT AND DISCUSSION ............................................. 144 7.1 Research Aim and Objectives ..................................................................... 144
xii
7.2 Characterization of Heavy Metal Content and Composition in
Oxisols of Stable and Unstable Slopes ....................................................... 145 7.3 Relationships between Soil pH, Calcium Content, Total Organic
Carbon (TOC), Soil CEC In Oxisols of Stable and Unstable Slopes ......... 148 7.4 Relationships between Soil Colour Intensity, Reflectance
Colorimeter Value and Soil Texture Interactions of Oxisols at Stable
and Unstable Slopes ................................................................................... 151 7.4.1 Soil Texture Interactions of Stable and Unstable Slopes .................. 151
7.4.2 Soil Color Intensity of Stable and Unstable Slopes .......................... 153 7.4.2.1 Munsell Soil Color Chart ...................................................... 153 7.4.2.2 CIELAB Spectrophotometer ................................................ 159
7.5 Relationships between Soil Properties, Colour Variables and
Shallow Slope Failure ................................................................................. 161 7.5.1 Soil Heavy metal / Micronutrient and Soil CEC............................... 161 7.5.2 Soil Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and Soil Texture ......................... 163
7.5.3 Soil Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and Soil pH ................................ 164 7.5.4 Soil Texture, Soil CEC and Soil Heavy Metal / Micronutrient ........ 165 7.5.5 Soil Heavy Metal / Micronutrient and Soil pH ................................. 166 7.5.6 Soil Color and Soil Properties ........................................................... 167
CHAPTER EIGHT: CONCLUSION ...................................................................... 172 8.1 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 172
8.1.1 Factor Affecting the Dissimilarity of Properties Concentration
in Slopes Soil .................................................................................... 173
8.1.2 How This Study Contribute to Islamic Built Environment ............... 176
CHAPTER NINE: RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................... 180 9.1 Proposed Shallow Slope Failure Rating System ........................................ 180
9.2 General Recommendations ......................................................................... 186
BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................... 190
APPENDIX A SLOPE FAILURE TECHNICAL NOTES ............................... 217 APPENDIX B SOIL CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ............ 242 APPENDIX C CIELAB SOIL COLOR VARIABLES RESULTS .................. 250 APPENDIX D SLOPE SOIL REFLECTANCE COLORIMETER
ANNOVA ..................................................................................... 260
xiii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 2.1 Series of major landslide occurrences in Malaysia for the past
decade and consequence in terms of loss of lives. (Harwant,
Singh, 2006). 19
Table 2.2 Series of Landslide Occurrences Happened along Malaysian
Highway between 1990 and 2015. (Tan Y. C. & Gue, S.S,
2006) 22
Table 2.3 Slope Gradients Classification (Highlands and Hill slope
Development of Planning Guidelines, 2005) 27
Table 2.4 Slope failures classification (Varnes, 1978) 30
Table 2.5 General types of slope failure (Varnes, 1978) 31
Table 2.6 Slope failures along Northern part of North South Highway
(PLUS, 2014) 33
Table 2.7 Causes of Landslides in Malaysia (Gue and Tan, 2008) 35
Table 2.8 Basic layers of soil horizon (McCarthy, 1982) 40
Table 2.9 Relative sizes of sand, silt, and clay (Yerima, 2005) 55
Table 2.10 Research gap of current slope stabilization techniques and
slope assessments system 68
Table 3.1 Location of slope soil samples along Section C2 (North-South
Highway) 75
Table 3.2 Location of slope soil samples along Section C3 (North-South
Highway) 75
Table 3.3 Location of soil samples along Section 1 LPT (East Coast
Highway) 77
Table 3.4 Locations of soil samples along Section 2 LPT (East Coast
Highway) 78
Table 3.5 Calculation for Calibration and QC Solution Preparation
(Qurratu, 2016) 86
Table 3.6 Analysis Parameter set in ICP-MS method software 87
Table 4.1 Analysis of variance for overall heavy metals concentration
(mg.kg-1) 100
xiv
Table 4.2 Average of heavy metals concentration in soil samples for
stable and unstable slopes (Mean value ± standard deviation **
Values from nine replicates (n = 9) 100
Table 4.3 Analysis of variance of Al content (mg.kg-1) of Oxisols in
response to 101
Table 4.4 Analysis of variance of Fe content (mgkg-1) of Oxisols in
response to 102
Table 4.5 Analysis of variance of Cr content (mg.kg-1) of Oxisols in
response to 103
Table 4.6 Analysis of variance of Mn content (mg.kg-1) of Oxisols in
response to stable and unstable slopes. 104
Table 4.7 Analysis of variance of Pb content (mg.kg-1) of Oxisols in
response to 105
Table 4.8 Analysis of variance of Zn content (mg.kg-1) of Oxisols in
response to stable and unstable slopes. 106
Table 4.9 Analysis of variance of Cu content (mg.kg-1) of Oxisols in
response to 107
Table 4.10 Analysis of variance of Ni content (mg.kg-1) of Oxisols in
response to 108
Table 5.1 Analysis of variance of soil pH in Oxisols on stable and
unstable slopes. 112
Table 5.2 Analysis of variance of soil total organic carbon in Oxisols of
stable and unstable slopes. 113
Table 5.3 Analysis of variance of CEC in Oxisols of stable and unstable
slopes. 114
Table 5.4 Analysis of variance of Ca content (mg.kg-1) in Oxisols of
stable and unstable slopes. 115
Table 5.5 The average of chemical properties concentrations in soil
samples for stable and unstable slopes (Mean value ± standard
deviation). 119
Table 6.1 Assessment of Oxisols color intensity using Munsell Soil
Color Chart at stable and unstable slopes of the North South
Highway and the East Coast Highway 121
Table 6.2 Means of soil color intensity for Section C2, North South
Highway (PLUS) measuring in CIELAB L* = lightness, a* =
xv
red (+)/green (-), b* = yellow (+)/blue (-), C* (Chroma), h* =
hue angle 126
Table 6.3 Means of soil color intensity for Section C3, North South
Highway (PLUS) measuring in CIELAB L* = lightness, a* =
red (+)/green (-), b* = yellow (+)/blue (-), C* (Chroma), h* =
hue angle 127
Table 6.4 Means of soil color intensity for Section 1 East Coast Highway
(LPT) measuring in CIELAB L* = lightness, a* = red
(+)/green (-), b* = yellow (+)/blue (-), C* (Chroma), h* = hue
angle 128
Table 6.5 Means of soil color intensity for Section 2 East Coast Highway
(LPT) measuring in CIELAB L* = lightness, a* = red
(+)/green (-), b* = yellow (+)/blue (-), C* (Chroma), h* = hue
angle 129
Table 6.6 The Overall Average of soil color variables in Oxisols for
stable and unstable slope 134
Table 7.1 Mean values for all heavy metal concentrations in stable and
unstable slopes 146
Table 7.2 Relationship between soil total organic carbon (TOC), soil
CEC, Ca content and soil pH concentration in response to
stable and unstable slope conditions. 149
Table 7.3 Mean values of soil textures in different slope conditions 152
Table 7.4 Summary of overall soil color analysis by using Munsell Soil
Color Chart in response to stable and unstable slope
conditions. 156
Table 7.5 Relationship between soil color, soil texture and soil organic
carbon 159
Table 7.6 Mean values for overall soil color variables in stable and
unstable slopes 160
Table 7.7 The overall results for soil properties in response to stable and
unstable slope conditions. 163
Table 9.1 Slope Soil Quality Index Values based on Soil Properties
Signatures and Soil Color Variables for 120 slopes along the
North South Highway (PLUS) and the East Coast Highway
(LPT). 184
xvi
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.1 Facilities affected by landslide in 2008(a) and 2007 (b). (Slope
Engineering Branch, 2009) 21
Figure 2.2 Rock slope failure at Bukit Lanjan caused a major toll highway
leading to the capital of Kuala Lumpur to be cut off for more
than 6 months 24
Figure 2.3 Debris flow at Gua Tempurung, North South Highway 24
Figure 2.4 Debris flow at Km 52.5, Karak Highway 25
Figure 2.5 Common Range of Slope Gradients in Malaysia. (Highlands
and Hill slope Development of Planning Guidelines, 2005) 26
Figure 2.6 Effect of slope gradient on slope stability. (Cerdà A., 2007) 28
Figure 2.7 Shallow slope failure (Gue, S.S., & Tan, Y.C, 2006) 34
Figure 2.8 Phases of natural soils (Brady, N.C. & Weil, R.R, 2002) 37
Figure 2.9 Stages of formation of soils (McCarthy, 1982) 38
Figure 2.10 Soil horizons (McCarthy, 1982) 39
Figure 2.11 Soil tend to become acidic through hydrolysis process 41
Figure 2.12 Slope position, runoff and slope failure (Goenadi, 2003). 43
Figure 2.13 Global Classification of soil shows that soil in Malaysia is
mostly oxisol and ultisols. 47
Figure 2.14 Oxisols soils 47
Figure 2.15 Soil degradation map, Malaysia soil falls under very degraded
and degraded soil. (Source: https://makewealthhistory.org/ -
global-soil-degradation/) 48
Figure 2.16 Chemical Properties of Oxisols (Sumner, 2002) 54
Figure 2.17 USDA textural triangle of sand, silt and clay (USDA, 2010) 56
Figure 2.18 Munsell color chart to indicate soil color 57
Figure 2.19 Physical Properties of Oxisols (Sumner, 2002) 59
xvii
Figure 2.20 A profile of a ferralsol (oxisol) with indication of different
horizons. Source: www.colorado.edu/.../geog_1011_f02/
study2_02.html 61
Figure 3.1 Location map of Section C2 and Section C3 along the North-
South Highway 74
Figure 3.2 Stable slopes soil covered by vegetation 74
Figure 3.3 Unstable slopes soil 74
Figure 3.4 Location map of the East Coast Highway (LPT) –Phase 1 76
Figure 3.5 Stable slope soil covered by vegetation 76
Figure 3.6 Unstable slope soil 77
Figure 3.7 Ten different points selected randomly at stable slope covered
with vegetation at the depth of 200 mm. 79
Figure 3.8 Soil Sample Preparations 80
Figure 3.9 Acid Digestion Preparations 83
Figure 3.10 Samples Preparation for Heavy Metal Analysis using ICP-MS 86
Figure 3.11 ICP-MS daily optimisation check (Qurratu, 2016) 88
Figure 3.12 Workflow for analytical performance, Method 6020B
(Qurratu, 2016) 88
Figure 3.13 Statistical Analysis Frameworks for Heavy Metal and
Micronutrient Analysis 89
Figure 3.14 Ten g of sieved soil was weighed by using the analytical
balance. 5 ml of standard potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)
and 10 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) were added
to it using a pipette. Then mixture was shaken and left at room
temperature in a fume hood for 16-18 hours. 90
Figure 3.15 Equipment set up for soil CEC analysis. 92
Figure 3.16 10 g of sieved soil was weighed by using an analytical balance
for soil pH determination. 93
Figure 3.17 Equipment set up for soil texture analysis by using Pipette
method. 94
Figure 3.18 5YR page from Munsell Soil Color Chart book. On both pages,
Hue was shown in the top left corner, value was shown along
the left side, and Chroma was shown along the bottom. During
xviii
the Munsell portion of this study, after recording the Munsell
colour code for a sample, the code was then translated into the
color descriptor and actual color name using the corresponding
color diagram page. 95
Figure 3.19 10g of sieved soil was placed in a polystyrene cell and was
placed horizontally under spectrophotometer on a working
table. Each sample was measured randomly at three points to
get the accurate reading. 96
Figure 3.20 White calibration readings based on standard calibration 98
Figure 4.1 The average of Al content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable
and unstable slopes (Mean value ± standard deviation **
Values from nine replicates (n = 9) 101
Figure 4.2 The average of Fe content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable
and unstable slopes (Mean value ± standard deviation **
Values from nine replicates (n = 9) 102
Figure 4.3 The average of Cr content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable
and unstable slopes (Mean value ± standard deviation **
Values from nine replicates (n = 9) 103
Figure 4.4 The average of Mn content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable
and unstable slopes (Mean value ± standard deviation **
Values from nine replicates (n = 9) 104
Figure 4.5 The average of Pb content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable
and unstable slopes (Mean value ± standard deviation **
Values from nine replicates (n = 9) 105
Figure 4.6 The average of Zn content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable
and unstable slopes (Mean value ± standard deviation **
Values from nine replicates (n = 9) 106
Figure 4.7 The average of Cu content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable
and unstable slopes (Mean value ± standard deviation **
Values from nine replicates (n = 9) 107
Figure 4.8 The average of Ni content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable
and unstable slopes (Mean value ± standard deviation **
Values from nine replicates (n = 9) 108
Figure 5.1 Mean of Soil pH in Oxisols for stable and unstable slopes
(Mean value ± standard deviation ** Values from three
replicates (n = 3) 112
xix
Figure 5.2 Mean of Soil total Organic Carbon in Oxisols for stable and
unstable slopes (Mean value ± standard deviation ** Values
from three replicates (n = 3) 113
Figure 5.3 Mean of CEC value in Oxisols for stable and unstable slopes
(Mean value ± standard deviation ** Values from three
replicates (n = 3) 114
Figure 5.4 The average of Ca content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable
and unstable slopes (Mean value ± standard deviation **
Values from nine replicates (n = 9) 115
Figure 6.1 The L*a*b* values are displayed on the built in graphic
display following each reading. The colour ranges indicated all
120 soil samples were between Red-Yellow colors. 125
Figure 6.2 The average of variable L* in Oxisols for stable and unstable
slopes 130
Figure 6.3 The average of variable a* in Oxisols for stable and unstable
slopes 131
Figure 6.4 The average of variable b* in Oxisols for stable and unstable
slopes. 132
Figure 6.5 The average of variable c* in Oxisols for stable and unstable
slopes 133
Figure 6.6 The average of variable h* in Oxisols for stable and unstable
slopes 134
Figure 6.7 Distribution of soil texture particles in Oxisols for stable and
unstable slopes 136
Figure 8.1 Development of Slope Failure Rating System (SFRS). 182
xx
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
% Percent mL Mililiter
< Less than ICP-MS Inductively coupled plasma
mass spectrometry
> More than IETC International Environmental
Technology Center
°C Degree celcius IUCN
International Union for the
Conservation of Nature
MΩ Mega-ohm KED Kinetic energy discrimination
Kg Kilogram
Al Aluminium KOH Potassium hydroxide
Al2O12S3 Aluminium sulfate L Liter
ANOVA Analysis of Variance mg/kg Milligram per kilogram
BOD Biochemical Oxygen
Demand
mg/L Miligram per liter
CCOHS Canadian Centre for
Occupational Health
and Safety
Mg Magnesium
Cd Cadmium MgO Magnesium Oxide
CEC Cation exchange
capacity
MHLG Ministry of House and Local
Government
CO2 Carbon dioxide Mn Manganese
COD Chemical Oxygen
Demand
MnSO4 Manganese (II) Sulfate
Cr Chromium M1 Stock concentration
Cu Copper M2 Desired concentration
DI Deionized MS Murashige and Skoog
DNA DeoxyriboNucleic
Acid
NEB Nebulizer
DO dissolved oxygen NH3-N Ammoniacal Nitrogen
EPA Environment
Protection Agency
Ni Nickel
Fe Iron Pb Lead
FeSO4.7H20 Ferrous sulfate
heptahydrate
PFA perfluoroalkoxy polymer
G Gram pH Potential of hydrogen
H2O2 Hydrogen peroxides ppb Parts perbillion
H2O Water ppm Parts permillion
HNO3 Nitric acid PSII photosystem II
H+ Hydrogen ion USEPA
United States Environmental
Policy Agency
HCl Hydrochloric acid UV
ultraviolet
QC Quality control V1 Volume of stock needed
xxi
STD Standard mode V2 Final volume
TDS Total dissolve solid WWF World Wide Fund For Nature
U Uranium Zn Zinc
μg/L Microgram perliter
USD United States Dollar
1
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
1.1 RESEARCH BACKGROUND: SOIL EROSION AND GLOBAL AGENDA
United Nations (UN) and other international organizations have produced numerous
reports in relation to the need to emphasize on soil studies and the establishment of
adequate soil information. World leaders had adopted the United Nations Millennium
Declaration in September 2000 to set out the Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs). Series of references and recommendation regarding soil health and the
relationship between unhealthy soil and poor soil management were made and
reinforced in the MDG reports (UN Millennium Project, 2005). An annual report of
Human Development was published by UNDP to measure and evaluate the
developmental progress since 1990. The information regarding soils only started to be
reported in 2003 Human Development Report and soils were only mentioned in few
parts of the report which generally directed on the soil degradation and nutrient
depletion and other issue such as indigenous soil was also stated in the sequential
reports. Moreover, the latest report regarding soils discussed on the significance of
soil to perform as sinks and sources of greenhouse gases, soil fertility failure, soil
erosion and the effects to the future development (UNDP, 2007). Essentially, the
information on soils with other related information and their revolution such as new
technologies to solve problems regarding soils in the reports are very crucial as this
global agenda is frequently asked and utilized by the other scientific disciplines,
society, decision and policy makers.
2
Healthy soils are needed by all communities and societies for various reasons
such as for economic and social well-being and provision of ecosystem goods and
services (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Thus, it is essential to monitor
the quality of soils and to gather the information on their functions and properties.
With these information, numerous benefits can be gained including protection of the
environment via interactions between soils, water and air, maintenance of habitats and
biodiversity, preservation of archaeological residues, establishment of a platform for
structure and provision of raw resources (Blum, 2005). The European Communities
Framework Directive has formed the foundation for the proposed legislative
protection of soils and has recognised the necessities for soil protection and
management within the UK policy framework via the recognised implication of these
functions (Commission of the European Communities, 2006a, b; SEPA, 2001; Defra,
2004; Environment Agency, 2004; Towers, 2006). However, these policies face
several challenging scientific issues as soils are amongst the most complex systems on
the planet.
Soils have been categorised as one of the main features of the natural resources
in terrestrial ecosystems. In order to manage and monitor soils at local, regional and
national-scales, there is a need to improve the list of requirements in the policy. Yet, it
remains unclear which properties of soils are most appropriately monitored due to the
extensive series of goods and services and the inherent chemical, physical and
biological complexities contained in soils. The physio-chemical properties of soils
have hitherto provided the fundamental context in which such functions operate and
have clear utility in assessing ecological status and the majority of soil processes are
driven by the soil biota. Nevertheless, a mechanistic understanding of the interactions
between soil biodiversity and its role is indisputably complex and continuously
3
indescribable both in relation to the soil as an ecosystem in itself or as part of a greater
ecosystem (Bardgett et al., 2005; Fitter et al., 2005; Hooper et al., 2005).
Generally, industrialized and developing countries give great impacts to Nature
such as soil erosion and land degradation resulting from the increasing population and
enlargement of settlements and life-lines which are located at hazardous areas. To
supervise these natural hazards, major forces and rational land-use procedures by the
third world countries are necessary. But, they are causing difficulties to them since the
costs for the works are expensive. Same goes to the industrialized societies as they are
unwilling to pay the costs in structural procedures that can minimize natural risks. In
addition, the soil erosion trend has increased significantly owing to improper changes
in land usage and ranked10th among the most devastating natural disasters in the
world occurring across almost all terrains with steep slopes singled out as the most
susceptible to sliding (Schuster and Highland, 2003; Highland and Bobrowsky, 2008;
Leroy and Grachera, 2013). Marques (2007) reported an annual rate of soil erosion of
30–40 tonne/ha in developed countries of Asia, Africa and South America. On a
global scale, the annual loss of 75 billion tons of soil costs the world about US$400
billion per year or approximately US$70 per person per year (Eswaran, 2008). Soil
erosion from catchments with natural forests is minimal, but levels of soil erosion tend
to increase when natural forest is changed to tree crop plantations. Significant
dissimilarities usually depend on the soil properties, site influences and management
practices (Towers, 2006).
1.1.1 Soil Erosion and Highway Construction Industry
One of the factors increasing the soil loss is the road construction that involves the
processes of cutting and filling the slopes, removal of forest vegetation and
Recommended