KEY INDICATOR TOOLS FOR SHALLOW SLOPE FAILURE USING …

KEY INDICATOR TOOLS FOR SHALLOW SLOPE

FAILURE USING SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES

SIGNATURES AND SOIL COLOR VARIABLES

BY

MOHD SHAH IRANI BIN HASNI

A dissertation submitted in fulfilment of the requirement for

the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Halal Industry

International Institute of Halal Research and Training

International Islamic University Malaysia

JUNE 2018

ii

ABSTRACT

Slope failure has become a major concern in Malaysia due to the rapid development

and urbanization in the country. It poses severe threats to any highway construction

industry, residential areas, natural resources, as well as tourism activities. The extent

of damages resulted from this catastrophe can be lessened if a long-term early warning

system to predict landslide prone areas is implemented. Thus, this study aimed to

develop key indicator tools to predict shallow slope failure based on soil chemical

properties and soil color variables. The concentration of each soil properties and

chromaticity in both stable and unstable slope soil samples was evaluated using ICP-

MS and Remote DRA Cary-50 chroma meter from two different localities that consist

of 120 soil samples located along the South Highway (PLUS) and the East Coast

Highway (LPT). This study established a marked difference (P<0.0001) of positive

correlation between soil properties concentrations and slope failures. Soil texture, total

organic carbon (TOC), soil pH, iron oxide and aluminium concentration were the

environmental variables that strongly correlated with soil color variables at the studied

area. Indicators that could be used to predict shallow slope failure were high value of

L* (62), low values of c* (20) and h* (66) with indication between 5 YR to 10 YR,

low concentration of iron (53 mgkg-1) and aluminium oxide (37 mgkg-1), low soil total

organic carbon (0.5%), low soil cation exchange capacity (3.6 cmol/kg), slightly

acidic (pH 4.9), high amount of sand fraction (68 %) and low amount of clay fraction

(20%) in soil particles. The reactions and distinctive changes of soil properties

between stable and unstable slopes were emphasized as results of highly significant

differences were perceived between soil properties, the locations, slope stability and

combinations of all interactions. By identifying the key factors controlling slope

stability, a greater understanding of how the properties of Oxisols influenced the slope

stability in response to interactions with environmental factors would be gained.

Besides, the control of such damaging effects would require proper soil conservation

strategies such as proper land leveling, afforestation, fallowing, terracing and

inclusion of restorative vegetation on the slopes. Therefore, new rating system for

shallow slope failure can be developed by implementing these findings as key

indicators. The approach of using soil properties to predict the landslide prone areas

has never been verified in highway construction industry and also in other industries

in Malaysia. This approach is appropriate to be implemented as an indicator to

categorize the prospective areas of unstable slopes and simultaneously helps in

improving slope stability and safety for future development. Additionally, the mass

movement also can be avoided by identifying the areas with the probability of

experiencing slope failures at the preliminary phase of development.

iii

البحث ملخصABSTRACT IN ARABIC

أصبح انهيار المنحدرات مصدر قلق كبير في ماليزيا والذي نتج بسبب التطور السريع والتحضر في البلاد. تشكل انهيار فة إلى الأنشطة المنحدرات تهديدا خطيرا على قطاع بناء الطرق السريعة، والمناطق السكنية، والموارد الطبيعية، وبالإضا

السياحية. بالإمكان تقليل مدى الأضرار الناتجة عن هذه الكوارث عن طريق تطبيق أنظمة إنذار مبكر طويل الأمد للتنبؤ بالمناطق المعرضة للانهيارات الأرضية. هدفت هذه الدراسة إلى تطوير أدوات للمؤشرات الرئيسية من أجل التنبؤ

عتماد على اخووا الكيميائية للرببة ومتييرات ألوان الرببة. م تقيي تركيز كل من بانهيار المنحدرات المنخفضة بالاخصائص الرببة ولونيتها في عينات تربة المنحدرات المستقرة واليير المستقرة باستخدام المطياف الكتلي البلازمي بالتقارن

عينة ترابية تقع على طول اخوط 120من لمنطقتين مختلفتين والتي تكونت DA Cary-50 ( ومقياسICP-MSالحثي )للارتباط (P <0.0001) (. أثبتت هذه الدراسة فرقا واضحا LPT) و خط الساحل الشرقي (PLUS) الجنوبي السريع

(، TOCالإيجابي بين تراكيز خصائص الرببة، ونهيار المنحدرات. كانت متييرات قوام الرببة، والكربون العضوي الكلي )الرببة، وتراكيز أكسيد الحديد والألمنيوم البيئية مرتبطة بقوة مع متييرات لون الرببة في المنطقة المدروسة. ودرجة الحموضة

* h( و 20*) c(، وقي 62*) Lالمؤشرات التي بالامكان استخدامها للتنبؤ بانهيار المنحدرات المنخفضة كانت: قيمة 37مغ/كي ( وأكسيد الألومنيوم ) 53منخفض للحديد ) ، وتركيز YR 10إلى YR 5( منخفضة مع مؤشر بين 66)

سنتيمرب/كج ( 3.6( ، وسعة تبادل الكاتيون المنخفض )٪0.5مغ/كي ( ، وإجمالي الكربون العضوي المنخفض للرببة ) 20(، وكمية منخفضة من أجزاء الطين )%68درجة حموضة( ، وكمية كبيرة من أجزاء الرمل ) 4.9، والحمضية قليلا )

في جزيئات الرببة. م الربكيز على التفاعلات والتيييرات المميزة خوصائص الرببة بين المنحدرات المستقرة وغير المستقرة ( ٪كنتائج بفروق ذات دلالة معنوية بين خصائص الرببة، والمواقع، وثبات المنحدرات، ومزيج جميع التفاعلات. سيت فه

تقرار المنحدر استجابة للتفاعلات مع العوامل البيئية بشكل أفضل من الأوكسيسولات على اس كيفية تأثير خصائصخلال تحديد العوامل الرئيسية التي تتحك في استقرار المنحدرات. وبالإضافة إلى ذلك فإن التحك في هذه التأثيرات

حريج، والإراحة، وعمل الضارة يتطلب اسرباتيجيات سليمة للمحافظة على الرببة مثل التسوية المناسبة للأراضي، والتالمصاطب، وإدراج النباتات الداعمة على المنحدرات. لذلك بالإمكان تطوير نظام تصنيف جديد بانهيار المنحدرات المنخفضة عن طريق تطبيق هذه النتائج كمؤشرات رئيسية. لم يت من قبل استخدام خصائص الرببة للتنبؤ بالمناطق

بارها في قطاع بناء الطرق السريعة وفي القطاعات الأخرى في ماليزيا. هذه الطريقة المعرضة للانهيارات الأرضية واختمناسبة للتطبيق كمؤشر لتصنيف المناطق المحتملة لحوادث المنحدرات اليير مستقرة، وتساعد في الوقت نفسه في تقوية

ه بالإمكان تجنب الحركة الكتلية عن طريق استقرار المنحدرات وتحسين السلامة للتنمية المستقبلية. بالإضافة إلى ذلك فإن .تحديد المناطق المحتمل انهيار منحدراتها في المراحل الأولية من التطوير

iv

APPROVAL PAGE

The dissertation of Mohd Shah Irani Bin Hasni has been approved by the following:

__________________________________

Rashidi Othman

Supervisor

__________________________________

Zainul Mukrim bin Baharuddin

Co-Supervisor

__________________________________

Internal Examiner

__________________________________

External Examiner

__________________________________

External Examiner

__________________________________

Chairperson

v

DECLARATION

I hereby declare that this dissertation is the result of my own investigation, except

where otherwise stated. I also declare that it has not been previously or concurrently

submitted as a whole for any other degrees at IIUM or other institutions.

Mohd Shah Irani Bin Hasni

Signature…………………....………. Date …….……………….

vi

COPYRIGHT

INTERNATIONAL ISLAMIC UNIVERSITY MALAYSIA

DECLARATION OF COPYRIGHT AND AFFIRMATION OF

FAIR USE OF UNPUBLISHED RESEARCH

KEY INDICATOR TOOLS FOR SHALLOW SLOPE FAILURE

USING SOIL CHEMICAL PROPERTIES SIGNATURES AND

SOIL COLOR VARIABLES

I declare that the copyright holder of this dissertation are jointly owned by the

student and IIUM.

Copyright © 2018 Mohd Shah Irani Bin Hasni and International Islamic University Malaysia. All

rights reserved.

No part of this unpublished research may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system,

or transmitted, in any form or by any means, electronic, mechanical, photocopying,

recording or otherwise without prior written permission of the copyright holder

except as provided below

1. Any material contained in or derived from this unpublished research may

be used by others in their writing with due acknowledgement.

2. IIUM or its library will have the right to make and transmit copies (print

or electronic) for institutional and academic purposes.

3. The IIUM library will have the right to make, store in a retrieved system

and supply copies of this unpublished research if requested by other

universities and research libraries.

By signing this form, I acknowledged that I have read and understand the IIUM

Intellectual Property Right and Commercialization policy.

Affirmed by Mohd Shah Irani Bin Hasni

……..…………………….. ………………………..

Signature Date

vii

DEDICATION

This dissertation is dedicated to my beloved parents

viii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

In the Name of Allah, the Most Beneficent and the Most Merciful,

All the praises and thanks to Allah (SWT), to whom ultimately we depend for

sustenance, guidance and the Creator who is ultimate source of knowledge and

wisdoms endowed to mankind.

It is my ardent hope that the thesis I wrote will be benefited by others who

possess the interest and passion to study on slope soil properties. All the methods and

techniques had been explained in detail with diagrams and features. I wish one day my

findings will contribute to a significant use for the state government especially relating

to catastrophe management of slope failure. It also can generate other novel ideas to

prevent slope failure by controlling soil properties index either by engineering or other

technologies.

Special thanks goes to my enthusiastic supervisor, Associate Professor Dr.

Rashidi bin Othman and Co-supervisor, Assistant Professor Dr. Zainul Mukrim bin

Baharuddin. My research has been an amazing experience and I thank them

wholeheartedly, not only for their tremendous academic support, but also for giving

me plenty of wonderful opportunities and always dedicated to assist me in solving the

confusions and guide me to the right path towards the final result of the thesis.

In addition, I would love to express my gratitude to my beloved parents for

their never-ending love, prayers and unstoppable supports, as well as giving me a

great deal of inspiration throughout my study periods. I acknowledge with gratitude of

her help and lots of love dedicated to my wife Nor Syazwani Binti Mustafa, who

patiently endured the recital of my thesis at any hour of the days and nights, and who

often saved me from grave mistakes and also to my siblings who always supported me

along my research journey.

In addition, I would like to thank my dearest workmates, Siti Zubaidah Abu

Kassim, Qurratu Aini Mat Ali, Nor Hidayah Noh, Fatimah Azzahra Zaifuddin,

Razanah Ramya, Farah Ayuni Mohd Hatta, Azlen Hanifah, Wan Syibrah Hanisah

Wan Sulaiman, Hur Hanie Mohd Latiff, Ruhul Izzati Shaharuddin as well as Hafizana

Mat Jusoh (Science Officer of Herbarium Lab, KAED) and every single person who I

could not mention their names one by one who always gave me sincere advices and

being supportive in finishing my thesis entitled, “Key Indicator Tools for Shallow

Slope Failure Assessment Using Soil Chemical Properties Signatures and Soil Color

Variables”.

Lastly, this thesis is humbly dedicated to the Ministry of Higher Education

who had granted me the scholarship to pursue my PhD’s study at International

Institute for Halal Research and Training (INHART), International Islamic University

Malaysia.

Alhamdulillah…

ix

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Abstract ........................................................................................................................ ii Abstract in Arabic ........................................................................................................ iii Approval Page .............................................................................................................. iv

Declaration ................................................................................................................... v Copyright ..................................................................................................................... vi Dedication .................................................................................................................... vii Acknowledgements ...................................................................................................... viii

List of Tables ............................................................................................................... xiii List of Figures .............................................................................................................. xvi List of Abbreviations ................................................................................................... xx

CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION ...................................................................... 1 1.1 Research Background: Soil Erosion and Global Agenda ........................... 1

1.1.1 Soil Erosion and Highway Construction Industry ............................ 3 1.2 Problem Statement and Issues .................................................................... 5

1.3 Research Goal ............................................................................................. 9 1.4 Research Objectives.................................................................................... 9

1.5 Research Questions ..................................................................................... 10 1.6 Research Scope and Limitations ................................................................. 10

1.7 Research Significance ................................................................................. 11

CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................... 13 2.1 Environment and Islamic Perspectives ....................................................... 13 2.2 Slope Failure as Environmental Issue......................................................... 16

2.2.1 Slope Failure in Malaysia ................................................................. 17 2.2.2 Cases of Slope Failure in Malaysian Highway ................................. 20

2.2.3 Examples of Slope Failures Occurrences in Malaysian

Highway............................................................................................ 23

2.2.3.1 Rock Slope Failure at Bukit Lanjan, 2003 ........................... 23 2.2.3.2 Slope failure at KM302 Gua Tempurung, North South

Highway ............................................................................... 24

2.2.3.3 Landslide at Karak Highway: KM52.5 Jalan Lentang -

Bukit Tinggi ......................................................................... 25 2.2.3.4 General Classification of Slope ............................................ 25

2.2.4 Factors That Influence Slope Stability .............................................. 28

2.2.5 Types of Slope Failure ...................................................................... 30 2.2.6 Shallow Slope Failure ....................................................................... 32 2.2.7 Identification of Contributing and Triggering Factors ...................... 34

2.3 Soil as Important Component of the Slope ................................................. 37 2.3.1 Soil Formation................................................................................... 37

2.3.2 Soil Horizons..................................................................................... 39 2.3.3 Factors Affecting Soil Properties Development ............................... 41 2.3.4 Common soil types in the landslide-prone area ................................ 44

2.4 Oxisols Properties ....................................................................................... 45 2.4.1 Chemical Properties of Oxisols......................................................... 49

x

2.4.1.1 Heavy Metal and Micronutrient Contents in relation to

Oxisols .................................................................................. 49 2.4.1.2 Soil CEC Contents in relation to Oxisols ............................. 50

2.4.1.3 Soil Total Organic Carbon (TOC) in relation to

Oxisols .................................................................................. 51 2.4.1.4 Soil pH in relation to Oxisols ............................................... 52

2.4.2 Physical Properties of Oxisols .......................................................... 55 2.4.2.1 Soil Texture Concentration in relation to Oxisols ................ 55

2.4.2.2 Soil Color Intensity in relation to Oxisols ............................ 57 2.4.3 Ferrallization/Laterization in relation to Oxisols .............................. 60

2.5 Current Slope Stabilisation Techniques and Assessment Systems ............. 61 2.5.1 Current Slope Stabilization Techniques and Technology ................. 61

2.5.2 Slope Assessment Systems ............................................................... 63 2.5.3 Research Gaps ................................................................................... 65

CHAPTER THREE: MATERIALS AND METHODS ......................................... 73 3.1 Study Areas and Sites Sampling ................................................................. 73

3.1.1 The North–South Expressway (PLUS) ............................................. 73 3.2 Method of Soil Sampling ............................................................................ 78

3.2.1 Soil Sample Preparation .................................................................... 79 3.3 ICP-MS Analysis of Heavy Metals and Micronutrients Content ............... 81

3.3.1 Acid Digestion .................................................................................. 81 3.3.2 Heavy Metal and Micronutrient Analysis ......................................... 83

3.4 Analysis of Total Organic Carbon (TOC) Concentration by Using

Walkley and Black Method ........................................................................ 89 3.5 Analysis of Soil CEC Concentration by Ammonium Acetate.................... 91

3.6 Analysis of Soil pH Concentration by a Digital pH Meter ......................... 92 3.7 Analysis of Soil Texture Concentration by Pipette Method ....................... 93

3.8 Analysis of Soil Color Intensity ................................................................. 95 3.8.1 Analysis of soil colours intensity by using Munsell Soil Color

Chart ................................................................................................. 95

3.8.2 Analysis of soil colors intensity by using CIELAB

spectrophotometer ............................................................................ 96 3.9 Statistical Analysis...................................................................................... 98

CHAPTER FOUR: CHARACTERIZATION OF HEAVY METAL

CONTENT AND COMPOSITION IN OXISOLS OF STABLE AND

UNSTABLE SLOPES ................................................................................................ 99 4.1 Objective of the Experiment ....................................................................... 99

4.2 Analysis of Heavy Metal Content and Composition of Oxisols in

Response to Stable and Unstable Slopes .................................................... 100 4.2.1 Analysis of Aluminium (Al) Content................................................ 101 4.2.2 Analysis of Iron (Fe) Content ........................................................... 102 4.2.3 Analysis of Chromium (Cr) content.................................................. 103

4.2.4 Analysis of Manganese (Mn) Content .............................................. 104 4.2.5 Analysis of Lead (Pb) Content .......................................................... 105 4.2.6 Analysis of Zinc (Zn) Content .......................................................... 106 4.2.7 Analysis of Copper (Cu) Content...................................................... 107

4.2.8 Analysis of Nickel (Ni) Content ....................................................... 108

xi

4.3 Summary of the Results .............................................................................. 109

CHAPTER FIVE: INFLUENCE OF pH LEVEL, TOTAL ORGANIC

CARBON (TOC), SOIL CATION EXCHANGE CAPACITY (CEC) AND

CALCIUM (CA) CONTENT IN OXISOLS ON STABLE AND

UNSTABLE SLOPES ................................................................................................ 110 5.1 Objective of the Experiment ....................................................................... 110 5.2 Analysis of Soil pH, Total Organic Carbon (TOC), Cation Exchange

Capacity (CEC) and Calcium Content in Oxisols of Stable and

Unstable Slopes .......................................................................................... 111 5.2.1 Analysis of Soil pH ........................................................................... 111 5.2.2 Analysis of Soil Total Organic Carbon (TOC) ................................. 112

5.2.3 Analysis of Soil Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) .......................... 113 5.2.4 Analysis of Calcium (Ca) Content .................................................... 114

5.3 The Relationships between Calcium Content, Soil CEC, Total

Organic Carbon (TOC) and Soil pH In Stable and Unstable Slopes

of Oxisols. ................................................................................................... 116 5.4 The Relationships between Heavy Metal Content, Soil CEC, Total

Organic Carbon (TOC) and Soil pH in Stable and Unstable Slopes

of Oxisols. ................................................................................................... 116 Summary of the Results .................................................................................... 117

CHAPTER SIX: SOIL COLOR INTENSITY, REFLECTANCE

COLORIMETER VALUE AND SOIL TEXTURE INTERACTIONS OF

OXISOLS AT STABLE AND UNSTABLE SLOPES ............................................ 120 6.1 Objectives of the Experiment ..................................................................... 120

6.2 Assessment of Soil Colour Intensity of Oxisols at Stable and

Unstable Slopes .......................................................................................... 120

6.3 Analysis of Reflectance Colorimeter Measurement of Oxisols at

Stable and Unstable Slopes ........................................................................ 125 6.3.1 Analysis of CIELAB L* (Lightness) value....................................... 130

6.3.2 Analysis of CIELAB a* (Red-Green axis) value .............................. 130

6.3.3 Analysis of CIELAB b* (Yellow-Blue Axis) value ......................... 131 6.3.4 Analysis of CIELAB c* (Chroma) value .......................................... 132 6.3.5 Analysis of CIELAB h* (Hue) value ................................................ 133 6.3.6 Overall CIELAB Soil Color Value Analysis .................................... 134

6.4 Analysis of Soil Texture Interactions of Oxisols at Stable and

Unstable Slopes .......................................................................................... 135 6.5 Relationships between Soil Texture and Soil Color ................................... 136

6.6 Relationships between CIELAB Spectrophotometer and Munsell

Soil Color Chart .......................................................................................... 138 6.7 Relationships between Clay, Silt, Sand, Soil Color, TOC, CEC,

Heavy Metal and Micronutrient Concentration .......................................... 139 6.8 Relationships between Cielab L*, A*, B*, C* and H* .............................. 141

6.9 Summary of the Results .............................................................................. 142

CHAPTER SEVEN: RESULT AND DISCUSSION ............................................. 144 7.1 Research Aim and Objectives ..................................................................... 144

xii

7.2 Characterization of Heavy Metal Content and Composition in

Oxisols of Stable and Unstable Slopes ....................................................... 145 7.3 Relationships between Soil pH, Calcium Content, Total Organic

Carbon (TOC), Soil CEC In Oxisols of Stable and Unstable Slopes ......... 148 7.4 Relationships between Soil Colour Intensity, Reflectance

Colorimeter Value and Soil Texture Interactions of Oxisols at Stable

and Unstable Slopes ................................................................................... 151 7.4.1 Soil Texture Interactions of Stable and Unstable Slopes .................. 151

7.4.2 Soil Color Intensity of Stable and Unstable Slopes .......................... 153 7.4.2.1 Munsell Soil Color Chart ...................................................... 153 7.4.2.2 CIELAB Spectrophotometer ................................................ 159

7.5 Relationships between Soil Properties, Colour Variables and

Shallow Slope Failure ................................................................................. 161 7.5.1 Soil Heavy metal / Micronutrient and Soil CEC............................... 161 7.5.2 Soil Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and Soil Texture ......................... 163

7.5.3 Soil Total Organic Carbon (TOC) and Soil pH ................................ 164 7.5.4 Soil Texture, Soil CEC and Soil Heavy Metal / Micronutrient ........ 165 7.5.5 Soil Heavy Metal / Micronutrient and Soil pH ................................. 166 7.5.6 Soil Color and Soil Properties ........................................................... 167

CHAPTER EIGHT: CONCLUSION ...................................................................... 172 8.1 Conclusion .................................................................................................. 172

8.1.1 Factor Affecting the Dissimilarity of Properties Concentration

in Slopes Soil .................................................................................... 173

8.1.2 How This Study Contribute to Islamic Built Environment ............... 176

CHAPTER NINE: RECOMMENDATIONS ......................................................... 180 9.1 Proposed Shallow Slope Failure Rating System ........................................ 180

9.2 General Recommendations ......................................................................... 186

BIBLIOGRAPHY ...................................................................................................... 190

APPENDIX A SLOPE FAILURE TECHNICAL NOTES ............................... 217 APPENDIX B SOIL CHEMICAL AND PHYSICAL PROPERTIES ............ 242 APPENDIX C CIELAB SOIL COLOR VARIABLES RESULTS .................. 250 APPENDIX D SLOPE SOIL REFLECTANCE COLORIMETER

ANNOVA ..................................................................................... 260

xiii

LIST OF TABLES

Table 2.1 Series of major landslide occurrences in Malaysia for the past

decade and consequence in terms of loss of lives. (Harwant,

Singh, 2006). 19

Table 2.2 Series of Landslide Occurrences Happened along Malaysian

Highway between 1990 and 2015. (Tan Y. C. & Gue, S.S,

2006) 22

Table 2.3 Slope Gradients Classification (Highlands and Hill slope

Development of Planning Guidelines, 2005) 27

Table 2.4 Slope failures classification (Varnes, 1978) 30

Table 2.5 General types of slope failure (Varnes, 1978) 31

Table 2.6 Slope failures along Northern part of North South Highway

(PLUS, 2014) 33

Table 2.7 Causes of Landslides in Malaysia (Gue and Tan, 2008) 35

Table 2.8 Basic layers of soil horizon (McCarthy, 1982) 40

Table 2.9 Relative sizes of sand, silt, and clay (Yerima, 2005) 55

Table 2.10 Research gap of current slope stabilization techniques and

slope assessments system 68

Table 3.1 Location of slope soil samples along Section C2 (North-South

Highway) 75

Table 3.2 Location of slope soil samples along Section C3 (North-South

Highway) 75

Table 3.3 Location of soil samples along Section 1 LPT (East Coast

Highway) 77

Table 3.4 Locations of soil samples along Section 2 LPT (East Coast

Highway) 78

Table 3.5 Calculation for Calibration and QC Solution Preparation

(Qurratu, 2016) 86

Table 3.6 Analysis Parameter set in ICP-MS method software 87

Table 4.1 Analysis of variance for overall heavy metals concentration

(mg.kg-1) 100

xiv

Table 4.2 Average of heavy metals concentration in soil samples for

stable and unstable slopes (Mean value ± standard deviation **

Values from nine replicates (n = 9) 100

Table 4.3 Analysis of variance of Al content (mg.kg-1) of Oxisols in

response to 101

Table 4.4 Analysis of variance of Fe content (mgkg-1) of Oxisols in

response to 102

Table 4.5 Analysis of variance of Cr content (mg.kg-1) of Oxisols in

response to 103

Table 4.6 Analysis of variance of Mn content (mg.kg-1) of Oxisols in

response to stable and unstable slopes. 104

Table 4.7 Analysis of variance of Pb content (mg.kg-1) of Oxisols in

response to 105

Table 4.8 Analysis of variance of Zn content (mg.kg-1) of Oxisols in

response to stable and unstable slopes. 106

Table 4.9 Analysis of variance of Cu content (mg.kg-1) of Oxisols in

response to 107

Table 4.10 Analysis of variance of Ni content (mg.kg-1) of Oxisols in

response to 108

Table 5.1 Analysis of variance of soil pH in Oxisols on stable and

unstable slopes. 112

Table 5.2 Analysis of variance of soil total organic carbon in Oxisols of

stable and unstable slopes. 113

Table 5.3 Analysis of variance of CEC in Oxisols of stable and unstable

slopes. 114

Table 5.4 Analysis of variance of Ca content (mg.kg-1) in Oxisols of

stable and unstable slopes. 115

Table 5.5 The average of chemical properties concentrations in soil

samples for stable and unstable slopes (Mean value ± standard

deviation). 119

Table 6.1 Assessment of Oxisols color intensity using Munsell Soil

Color Chart at stable and unstable slopes of the North South

Highway and the East Coast Highway 121

Table 6.2 Means of soil color intensity for Section C2, North South

Highway (PLUS) measuring in CIELAB L* = lightness, a* =

xv

red (+)/green (-), b* = yellow (+)/blue (-), C* (Chroma), h* =

hue angle 126

Table 6.3 Means of soil color intensity for Section C3, North South

Highway (PLUS) measuring in CIELAB L* = lightness, a* =

red (+)/green (-), b* = yellow (+)/blue (-), C* (Chroma), h* =

hue angle 127

Table 6.4 Means of soil color intensity for Section 1 East Coast Highway

(LPT) measuring in CIELAB L* = lightness, a* = red

(+)/green (-), b* = yellow (+)/blue (-), C* (Chroma), h* = hue

angle 128

Table 6.5 Means of soil color intensity for Section 2 East Coast Highway

(LPT) measuring in CIELAB L* = lightness, a* = red

(+)/green (-), b* = yellow (+)/blue (-), C* (Chroma), h* = hue

angle 129

Table 6.6 The Overall Average of soil color variables in Oxisols for

stable and unstable slope 134

Table 7.1 Mean values for all heavy metal concentrations in stable and

unstable slopes 146

Table 7.2 Relationship between soil total organic carbon (TOC), soil

CEC, Ca content and soil pH concentration in response to

stable and unstable slope conditions. 149

Table 7.3 Mean values of soil textures in different slope conditions 152

Table 7.4 Summary of overall soil color analysis by using Munsell Soil

Color Chart in response to stable and unstable slope

conditions. 156

Table 7.5 Relationship between soil color, soil texture and soil organic

carbon 159

Table 7.6 Mean values for overall soil color variables in stable and

unstable slopes 160

Table 7.7 The overall results for soil properties in response to stable and

unstable slope conditions. 163

Table 9.1 Slope Soil Quality Index Values based on Soil Properties

Signatures and Soil Color Variables for 120 slopes along the

North South Highway (PLUS) and the East Coast Highway

(LPT). 184

xvi

LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2.1 Facilities affected by landslide in 2008(a) and 2007 (b). (Slope

Engineering Branch, 2009) 21

Figure 2.2 Rock slope failure at Bukit Lanjan caused a major toll highway

leading to the capital of Kuala Lumpur to be cut off for more

than 6 months 24

Figure 2.3 Debris flow at Gua Tempurung, North South Highway 24

Figure 2.4 Debris flow at Km 52.5, Karak Highway 25

Figure 2.5 Common Range of Slope Gradients in Malaysia. (Highlands

and Hill slope Development of Planning Guidelines, 2005) 26

Figure 2.6 Effect of slope gradient on slope stability. (Cerdà A., 2007) 28

Figure 2.7 Shallow slope failure (Gue, S.S., & Tan, Y.C, 2006) 34

Figure 2.8 Phases of natural soils (Brady, N.C. & Weil, R.R, 2002) 37

Figure 2.9 Stages of formation of soils (McCarthy, 1982) 38

Figure 2.10 Soil horizons (McCarthy, 1982) 39

Figure 2.11 Soil tend to become acidic through hydrolysis process 41

Figure 2.12 Slope position, runoff and slope failure (Goenadi, 2003). 43

Figure 2.13 Global Classification of soil shows that soil in Malaysia is

mostly oxisol and ultisols. 47

Figure 2.14 Oxisols soils 47

Figure 2.15 Soil degradation map, Malaysia soil falls under very degraded

and degraded soil. (Source: https://makewealthhistory.org/ -

global-soil-degradation/) 48

Figure 2.16 Chemical Properties of Oxisols (Sumner, 2002) 54

Figure 2.17 USDA textural triangle of sand, silt and clay (USDA, 2010) 56

Figure 2.18 Munsell color chart to indicate soil color 57

Figure 2.19 Physical Properties of Oxisols (Sumner, 2002) 59

xvii

Figure 2.20 A profile of a ferralsol (oxisol) with indication of different

horizons. Source: www.colorado.edu/.../geog_1011_f02/

study2_02.html 61

Figure 3.1 Location map of Section C2 and Section C3 along the North-

South Highway 74

Figure 3.2 Stable slopes soil covered by vegetation 74

Figure 3.3 Unstable slopes soil 74

Figure 3.4 Location map of the East Coast Highway (LPT) –Phase 1 76

Figure 3.5 Stable slope soil covered by vegetation 76

Figure 3.6 Unstable slope soil 77

Figure 3.7 Ten different points selected randomly at stable slope covered

with vegetation at the depth of 200 mm. 79

Figure 3.8 Soil Sample Preparations 80

Figure 3.9 Acid Digestion Preparations 83

Figure 3.10 Samples Preparation for Heavy Metal Analysis using ICP-MS 86

Figure 3.11 ICP-MS daily optimisation check (Qurratu, 2016) 88

Figure 3.12 Workflow for analytical performance, Method 6020B

(Qurratu, 2016) 88

Figure 3.13 Statistical Analysis Frameworks for Heavy Metal and

Micronutrient Analysis 89

Figure 3.14 Ten g of sieved soil was weighed by using the analytical

balance. 5 ml of standard potassium dichromate (K2Cr2O7)

and 10 ml of concentrated sulfuric acid (H2SO4) were added

to it using a pipette. Then mixture was shaken and left at room

temperature in a fume hood for 16-18 hours. 90

Figure 3.15 Equipment set up for soil CEC analysis. 92

Figure 3.16 10 g of sieved soil was weighed by using an analytical balance

for soil pH determination. 93

Figure 3.17 Equipment set up for soil texture analysis by using Pipette

method. 94

Figure 3.18 5YR page from Munsell Soil Color Chart book. On both pages,

Hue was shown in the top left corner, value was shown along

the left side, and Chroma was shown along the bottom. During

xviii

the Munsell portion of this study, after recording the Munsell

colour code for a sample, the code was then translated into the

color descriptor and actual color name using the corresponding

color diagram page. 95

Figure 3.19 10g of sieved soil was placed in a polystyrene cell and was

placed horizontally under spectrophotometer on a working

table. Each sample was measured randomly at three points to

get the accurate reading. 96

Figure 3.20 White calibration readings based on standard calibration 98

Figure 4.1 The average of Al content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable

and unstable slopes (Mean value ± standard deviation **


Figure 4.2 The average of Fe content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable



Figure 4.3 The average of Cr content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable



Figure 4.4 The average of Mn content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable



Figure 4.5 The average of Pb content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable



Figure 4.6 The average of Zn content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable



Figure 4.7 The average of Cu content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable



Figure 4.8 The average of Ni content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable



Figure 5.1 Mean of Soil pH in Oxisols for stable and unstable slopes

(Mean value ± standard deviation ** Values from three

replicates (n = 3) 112

xix

Figure 5.2 Mean of Soil total Organic Carbon in Oxisols for stable and

unstable slopes (Mean value ± standard deviation ** Values

from three replicates (n = 3) 113

Figure 5.3 Mean of CEC value in Oxisols for stable and unstable slopes

(Mean value ± standard deviation ** Values from three

replicates (n = 3) 114

Figure 5.4 The average of Ca content (mg.kg-1) in soil samples for stable



Figure 6.1 The L*a*b* values are displayed on the built in graphic

display following each reading. The colour ranges indicated all

120 soil samples were between Red-Yellow colors. 125

Figure 6.2 The average of variable L* in Oxisols for stable and unstable

slopes 130

Figure 6.3 The average of variable a* in Oxisols for stable and unstable

slopes 131

Figure 6.4 The average of variable b* in Oxisols for stable and unstable

slopes. 132

Figure 6.5 The average of variable c* in Oxisols for stable and unstable

slopes 133

Figure 6.6 The average of variable h* in Oxisols for stable and unstable

slopes 134

Figure 6.7 Distribution of soil texture particles in Oxisols for stable and

unstable slopes 136

Figure 8.1 Development of Slope Failure Rating System (SFRS). 182

xx

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS

% Percent mL Mililiter

< Less than ICP-MS Inductively coupled plasma

mass spectrometry

> More than IETC International Environmental

Technology Center

°C Degree celcius IUCN

International Union for the

Conservation of Nature

MΩ Mega-ohm KED Kinetic energy discrimination

Kg Kilogram

Al Aluminium KOH Potassium hydroxide

Al2O12S3 Aluminium sulfate L Liter

ANOVA Analysis of Variance mg/kg Milligram per kilogram

BOD Biochemical Oxygen

Demand

mg/L Miligram per liter

CCOHS Canadian Centre for

Occupational Health

and Safety

Mg Magnesium

Cd Cadmium MgO Magnesium Oxide

CEC Cation exchange

capacity

MHLG Ministry of House and Local

Government

CO2 Carbon dioxide Mn Manganese

COD Chemical Oxygen

Demand

MnSO4 Manganese (II) Sulfate

Cr Chromium M1 Stock concentration

Cu Copper M2 Desired concentration

DI Deionized MS Murashige and Skoog

DNA DeoxyriboNucleic

Acid

NEB Nebulizer

DO dissolved oxygen NH3-N Ammoniacal Nitrogen

EPA Environment

Protection Agency

Ni Nickel

Fe Iron Pb Lead

FeSO4.7H20 Ferrous sulfate

heptahydrate

PFA perfluoroalkoxy polymer

G Gram pH Potential of hydrogen

H2O2 Hydrogen peroxides ppb Parts perbillion

H2O Water ppm Parts permillion

HNO3 Nitric acid PSII photosystem II

H+ Hydrogen ion USEPA

United States Environmental

Policy Agency

HCl Hydrochloric acid UV

ultraviolet

QC Quality control V1 Volume of stock needed

xxi

STD Standard mode V2 Final volume

TDS Total dissolve solid WWF World Wide Fund For Nature

U Uranium Zn Zinc

μg/L Microgram perliter

USD United States Dollar

1

CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1.1 RESEARCH BACKGROUND: SOIL EROSION AND GLOBAL AGENDA

United Nations (UN) and other international organizations have produced numerous

reports in relation to the need to emphasize on soil studies and the establishment of

adequate soil information. World leaders had adopted the United Nations Millennium

Declaration in September 2000 to set out the Millennium Development Goals

(MDGs). Series of references and recommendation regarding soil health and the

relationship between unhealthy soil and poor soil management were made and

reinforced in the MDG reports (UN Millennium Project, 2005). An annual report of

Human Development was published by UNDP to measure and evaluate the

developmental progress since 1990. The information regarding soils only started to be

reported in 2003 Human Development Report and soils were only mentioned in few

parts of the report which generally directed on the soil degradation and nutrient

depletion and other issue such as indigenous soil was also stated in the sequential

reports. Moreover, the latest report regarding soils discussed on the significance of

soil to perform as sinks and sources of greenhouse gases, soil fertility failure, soil

erosion and the effects to the future development (UNDP, 2007). Essentially, the

information on soils with other related information and their revolution such as new

technologies to solve problems regarding soils in the reports are very crucial as this

global agenda is frequently asked and utilized by the other scientific disciplines,

society, decision and policy makers.

2

Healthy soils are needed by all communities and societies for various reasons

such as for economic and social well-being and provision of ecosystem goods and

services (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005). Thus, it is essential to monitor

the quality of soils and to gather the information on their functions and properties.

With these information, numerous benefits can be gained including protection of the

environment via interactions between soils, water and air, maintenance of habitats and

biodiversity, preservation of archaeological residues, establishment of a platform for

structure and provision of raw resources (Blum, 2005). The European Communities

Framework Directive has formed the foundation for the proposed legislative

protection of soils and has recognised the necessities for soil protection and

management within the UK policy framework via the recognised implication of these

functions (Commission of the European Communities, 2006a, b; SEPA, 2001; Defra,

2004; Environment Agency, 2004; Towers, 2006). However, these policies face

several challenging scientific issues as soils are amongst the most complex systems on

the planet.

Soils have been categorised as one of the main features of the natural resources

in terrestrial ecosystems. In order to manage and monitor soils at local, regional and

national-scales, there is a need to improve the list of requirements in the policy. Yet, it

remains unclear which properties of soils are most appropriately monitored due to the

extensive series of goods and services and the inherent chemical, physical and

biological complexities contained in soils. The physio-chemical properties of soils

have hitherto provided the fundamental context in which such functions operate and

have clear utility in assessing ecological status and the majority of soil processes are

driven by the soil biota. Nevertheless, a mechanistic understanding of the interactions

between soil biodiversity and its role is indisputably complex and continuously

3

indescribable both in relation to the soil as an ecosystem in itself or as part of a greater

ecosystem (Bardgett et al., 2005; Fitter et al., 2005; Hooper et al., 2005).

Generally, industrialized and developing countries give great impacts to Nature

such as soil erosion and land degradation resulting from the increasing population and

enlargement of settlements and life-lines which are located at hazardous areas. To

supervise these natural hazards, major forces and rational land-use procedures by the

third world countries are necessary. But, they are causing difficulties to them since the

costs for the works are expensive. Same goes to the industrialized societies as they are

unwilling to pay the costs in structural procedures that can minimize natural risks. In

addition, the soil erosion trend has increased significantly owing to improper changes

in land usage and ranked10th among the most devastating natural disasters in the

world occurring across almost all terrains with steep slopes singled out as the most

susceptible to sliding (Schuster and Highland, 2003; Highland and Bobrowsky, 2008;

Leroy and Grachera, 2013). Marques (2007) reported an annual rate of soil erosion of

30–40 tonne/ha in developed countries of Asia, Africa and South America. On a

global scale, the annual loss of 75 billion tons of soil costs the world about US$400

billion per year or approximately US$70 per person per year (Eswaran, 2008). Soil

erosion from catchments with natural forests is minimal, but levels of soil erosion tend

to increase when natural forest is changed to tree crop plantations. Significant

dissimilarities usually depend on the soil properties, site influences and management

practices (Towers, 2006).

1.1.1 Soil Erosion and Highway Construction Industry

One of the factors increasing the soil loss is the road construction that involves the

processes of cutting and filling the slopes, removal of forest vegetation and

Documents

KEY INDICATOR TOOLS FOR SHALLOW SLOPE FAILURE USING …