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E C O L O G I C A L
M A N A G E M E N T F O R
A G R I C U L T U R A L
S U S T A I N A B I L I T Y
E C O L O G I C A L
M A N A G E M E N T F O R
A G R I C U L T U R A L
S U S T A I N A B I L I T Y
BIRDSON FARMS
BIRDSON FARMS
B Y G E O F F B A R R E T T
Supplement to Wingspan, vol. 10, no.4, December 2000
II B I R D S O N F A R M S
Above: Isolated trees such
as this one in a wheatfield
near Kapunda in SA’s
Barossa Valley are unlikely
to survive.
Photo by Bill Bachman
Insets, from left:
Pine trees, often planted as
windbreaks in the past (see
background of photo)
attract exotic birds such as
sparrows and starlings, and
are of limited value to
native wildlife. Today,
Landcare efforts mean that
tree plantings are more
likely to include local,
native trees and shrubs.
Photo by David Tatnall
The sign says it all. Salt-
affected farmland on the
upper Fleurieu Peninsula,
SA, is no longer productive.
Photo by Bill Bachman
IN THE TEMPERATE WOODLANDS of Australia,where agriculture is a dominant land use, most ofthe complex natural ecosystems have been replacedby human-managed systems. On many farms morethan 90 per cent of the native vegetation has beencleared. Where five or six native tree species oncegrew, monoculture plantations and exotic speciesnow exist. Understorey shrubs have been removedby grazing stock, and a small number of crops ormanaged pastures have replaced a great diversity ofnative herbs, grasses and other plants.
The result has been a simplification of theecosystem and a reduction in biodiversity – thenumber of plant and animal species in the landscape.The effect of this change can be seen clearly in theloss of many of the ecosystem processes that farmersrely upon. Soil protection has diminished as salinityand acidification have spread. Water production andpurification are compromised. Greater severity andfrequency of floods, droughts, and infestation bypests are other effects.
Today it is universally recognised that protectingnatural ecosystems and maintaining biodiversity arefundamental elements of sustainable agriculture inAustralia.1
Birds as indicator speciesA farm with a rich diversity of birds will also have arelatively high diversity of trees, shrubs, mammals,reptiles, frogs and invertebrates. For this reason birdsare recognised as ‘indicator species’. Their presenceindicates the presence of many other species, andthus the ecological condition of the farm.2
Throughout the world there are many examplesof the role played by birds and other native wildlifein controlling agricultural pests. In Australia, forexample, birds are critical to maintaining tree health.A major cause of eucalypt dieback on farms ineastern Australia is insect attack, which is associatedwith fertiliser use and over-clearing.3 A healthy birdcommunity removes between 50 and 70 per cent ofthe leaf-feeding insects from patches of farm treesand so plays a valuable role in keeping those treesalive.4 In much of rural Australia, successful treeestablishment depends on drawing birds back intothe landscape, so that the birds can protect the newtrees from insect attack.
The Birds on Farms surveyOver the last 20 years, 10 million hectares of nativevegetation have been cleared in Australia. This clearinghas brought about the loss of an estimated 150 millionbirds. Over this same 20-year period Australia haswitnessed the rapid growth of the national Landcare
Sustainability in modern agriculture means ensuring
that biodiversity is maintained and enhanced, and that
ecological processes continue. The Birds on Farms survey
has led to the development of 10 simple guidelines for
attracting birds back to farms, and so improving the
natural resource base on which agriculture depends.
W H E R E T O F R O M H E R E ?Involvement in the Birds on Farms survey increasedparticipants’ awareness of rural conservation issues. In20 per cent of cases, this led to changed managementpractices, such as planting more native trees andshrubs and leaving fallen trees to break down naturally.
Feedback from participants suggests that amuch greater proportion of farmers would bewilling to implement the recommendations madehere, were it not for the short-term costs involved.However, the responsibility for making agriculturesustainable lies with the whole Australiancommunity, not just individual farmers, and needsto be considered against the estimated $1 billionthat land degradation costs the nation each year.
Many of the guidelines from the Birds on Farmsproject are being adopted by land managers, andincorporated into farm planning procedures. Thesurvey methods have also been incorporated into BirdsAustralia’s national Atlas of Australian Birds, currentlymonitoring changes to birds and the environment atmore than 6000 sites around Australia.
Below: This typical
farmscape in Victoria’s south
Gippsland has about 5 per
cent tree cover, not enough
to halt the decline of
woodland birds and
preserve the ecosystem
process on which long-term
agricultural production
depends.
Inset: With the help of
community-based organi-
sations such as Landcare,
Greening Australia and Land
for Wildlife, new ways must
be found to continue
agricultural production
while protecting natural
ecosystems.
Photos by David Tatnall
B I R D S O N F A R M S XV
W H E R E T O F R O M H E R E ?The Birds on Farms book, available from
Birds Australia, provides a fuller description of theresults, including background information to theguidelines in this article. An interactive program,Remnants, is available at the Birds Australia website(www.birdsaustralia.com.au/remnants). Thisprogram can be used to diagnose the general healthof your farm, and gives suggestions for improvingbird diversity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTSWe are indebted to the Thyne Reid Education Trust for providing the funding for the Birds on Farms project, and to EnvironmentAustralia whose Save the Bush Fund (Natural Heritage Trust) provided seed money to get the project started. The Norman WettenhallFoundation also provided valuable assistance during the analysis and writing stages. A special thank you to Brenda Newbey, who as theWestern Australian Co-ordinator for the Birds on Farms survey, was crucial to the success of the survey in that region. Also to KenHancock who spent long hours vetting the survey data and cleaning up the database. The following people were on the SteeringCommittee for the project and provided valuable advice throughout the project: Stephen Ambrose, David Baker-Gabb, Ian Davidson,Doug Robinson, Neil MacFarland, Andrew Bennett, Richard Loyn, Stephen Platt, Helen Alexander, Kate Mashford and Susan Wright.Thank you also to the 500 or so participants who took part in the survey or offered their farms for others to survey. Edited by David Meagher and Merrilyn Julian; layout and production by P.A.G.E. Pty Ltd; printing by Jenkin Buxton Printers Pty Ltd.
CONSERVATION THROUGH KNOWLEDGE
ACN 004 076 475415 Riversdale Road, Hawthorn East, Vic. 3123Tel: (03) 9882 2622; Fax: (03) 9882 2677Email: mail@birdsaustralia.com.auBirds Australia Home Page: http://www.birdsaustralia.com.au
Founded in 1901, Birds Australia (Royal Australasian OrnithologistsUnion) is Australia’s oldest national conservation organisation,dedicated to the study and conservation of native birds and their habitat.New members are welcome.
Funding for the Birds on Farms project and publicationof this supplement was generously provided by the
Thyne Reid Education Trust.
Additional funding was also generously provided by Environment Australia (National Heritage Trust)
and the Norman Wettenhall Foundation.
Since 1901 Birds Australia (Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union) hasworked for the conservation of Australia’s birds and their habitats,principally through scientific research. It is an independent, not-for-profitorganisation with over 20,000 members and supporters, and the provenability to inspire the involvement of thousands of volunteers in itsconservation projects. It relies on the financial support of companies, trustsand foundations and private individuals. New members are welcome.
Wingspan is the quarterly membership magazine of Birds Australia.Additional copies of this supplement are available from the
National Office.
Printed on recycled paper.
R E F E R E N C E S
1. Barr, N. & J. Cary 1994. Greening a Brown Land.Macmillan: South Melbourne.
2. Catterall, C. 1991. ‘On the importance of watchingbirds.’ Wildlife Australia, Autumn, pp. 3–5.
3. Beckmann, R. 1989–90. ‘Rural dieback: restoringbalance.’ Ecos, vol. 62, pp. 8–15.
4. Ford, H. A. 1989. Ecology of birds – an Australianperspective. Surrey Beatty: Sydney.
5. SCA 1991. Sustainable Agriculture, Report to theAustralian Agriculture Council by a Working Groupin Sustainable Agriculture. Standing Committee onAgriculture Technical Report No. 36. CSIRO:Melbourne.
6. Andrén, H. 1994. ‘Effects of habitat fragmentationon birds and mammals in landscapes with differentproportions of suitable habitat: a review.’ Oikos,vol. 71, pp. 355–66.
7. Walpole, S. C. 1999. ‘Assessment of the economicand ecological impacts of remnant vegetation onpasture productivity.’ Pacific Conservation Biology,vol. 5, pp. 28–35.
8. Simpson, P. & C. Langford 1996. Managing HighRainfall Native Pastures on a Whole Farm Basis. NSWAgriculture: Sydney.
9. Davidson, R. & S. Davidson (eds.) 1992. Bushland onfarms – do you have a choice? Canberra: AGPS.
10. McIntyre S., McIvor J. G. & MacLeod N. D. 2000.‘Principles for sustainable grazing in eucalyptwoodlands: landscape-scale indicators and the searchthresholds’, in Management for Sustainable Ecosystems,eds. P. Hale, A. Petrie, D. Moloney & P. Sattler.Centre for Conservation Biology, University ofQueensland: Brisbane.
Cover photo: Rural landscape near Mansfield, northeastern Victoria;
inset from top: New Holland Honeyeater; Red-capped Robin;
Pacific Black Ducks.
Photos: (landscape) by Bill Bachman; (honeyeater) by Dave Watts;
(robin) by Rob Drummond; (ducks) by Graeme Chapman
JOIN TODAYBy joining Birds Australia, you help Australia’s
wild birds and their habitats. Whether youparticipate in the activities and research or just
enjoy Australia’s leading bird magazine Wingspan, your subscription is hard at work,
safeguarding our beautiful birds.
Title First Name
Surname
Address
Postcode
Phone (AH) (BH)
Please accept my enclosed cheque for $62 $46 (concession)
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*Family covers two members at the same address. Membership runs for twelve months. Please enquire for rates for overseas members, and subscriptions to Emu, the journal of ornithology.
BOF.1
5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL:5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL 1/3/07 2:08 PM Page XVI
movement. Today there are more than 4000 Landcaregroups, all committed to restoring farm sustainabilityin various ways, including re-establishing andmaintaining native ecosystems.
Birds Australia’s Birds on Farms survey wascommenced in 1995 to assess whether theenvironmental work carried out by organisationssuch as Landcare was drawing birds back into rurallandscapes. The survey addressed a number of
questions, with a view to producing guidelines forincreasing bird diversity. For example:
• How much tree cover should I have on my farm?• Should the use of fertilisers and cropping be
limited?• What effect does grazing by livestock have on
birds?• What kinds of trees and shrubs should I plant to
encourage birds?• How do I attract birds to my farm?
Some 430 bird species were recorded over twoyears on 330 farms in southern and eastern Australia(see map). The average size of the farms was 608 ha(excluding the 10 largest farms), and most were beef,sheep, or wheat–sheep properties. Around 500volunteers were involved in the survey – mostlyfarmers or people working with farmers (76 per cent).
(cont.)
Small foliage-gleaning birds
such as this Spotted
Pardalote keep farm trees
healthy by removing
insects.
Photo by Dave Watts
Where diverse ecosystems
become simplified, as in
many agricultural
landscapes, native species
such as these Little Corellas
can become pests.
Photo by Dave Watts
As Noisy Miners spread
through farm landscapes,
they force out other insect-
feeding birds. Miner
territories are often
associated with increased
eucalypt dieback.
Photo by Graeme Chapman
Location of the 330 farms involved in the survey. The yellow
area indicates the extent of temperate woodlands before
agricultural development.
This supplement presents information for farmers who want
to attract birds onto their farms. It is based on the results of
Birds Australia’s five-year Birds on Farms survey, backed by
other research and expert opinion. Ten simple guidelines for
making your property more bird-friendly are presented,
each with suggested goals for management. Data from the
Birds on Farms survey indicate the likely effects of following
each guideline.
5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL:5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL 20/2/07 2:57 PM Page III
In 1991 the Federal Government’s Working
Group on Sustainable Agriculture defined
sustainable agriculture as:
‘the use of farming practices and systems
which maintain or enhance:
• the economic viability of agricultural
production;
• the natural resource base (including air,
soil, water, plants and animals); and
• other ecosystems which are influenced by
agricultural activities.’ 5
From this definition five principles for
sustainable agriculture were developed,
against which management policies could be
assessed:
1. Farm productivity is sustained or enhanced
over the long term.
2. Adverse impacts on the natural resource
base of agriculture and associated
ecosystems are ameliorated, minimised or
avoided.
3. Residues resulting from the use of
chemicals in agriculture are minimised.
4. The net social benefit derived from
agriculture is maximised.
5. Farming systems are sufficiently flexible to
manage risks associated with the vagaries
of climate and markets.
Australia has been in the forefront of some
essential elements of sustainable agriculture,
such as the use of legume-based pastures and
legume crops in rotations, minimum tillage
and stubble retention. Other approaches
include whole farm planning, integrated pest
management and biological control.
IV B I R D S O N F A R M S
What is ‘sustainable agriculture’?
G U I D E L I N E S F O RG U I D E L I N E S F O R
For every 10 per cent increase in tree cover, bird diversity increased by
7 per cent. At the same time, exotic birds decreased by 21 per cent.
Where more than 80 per cent of the farm trees were local native species,
the diversity of woodland-dependent birds was 43 per cent greater.
5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL:5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL 20/2/07 2:57 PM Page IV
Far left: This grazing country
near Mansfield in Victoria
might be aesthetically
pleasing, but is over-cleared
and unsustainable.
Left: Integrated pest
management recognises the
value of native biodiversity
in controlling agricultural
pests. As part of the Granite
Creeks Landcare project
(Euroa Victoria), DNRE
Research Officer Tom Morley
talks to Dookie Agricultural
College students about the
use of boring weevils to
control Pattersons Curse.
Photos by Bill Bachman
Opposite: This catchment in
the Dalgety Monaro/Snowy
Mountains district, NSW,
has at least 30 per cent
native tree and shrub cover:
the new vision of a healthy
landscape.
A rich diversity of birds
indicates that a diversity of
trees and shrubs, and other
types of wildlife are likely to
be present; inset from left:
Eucalypt blossom; Weebill;
Southern Water Skink;
Short-beaked Echidna; Grey
Shrike-thrush; Spotted
Marsh Frog.
Photos: (landscape and
blossom) by Bill Bachman;
(weebill) by Graeme
Chapman; (skink) by
David Meagher; (echidna)
by Fiona Smith; (shrike-
thrush) by Rob Drummond;
(frog) by Nick Clemann
B I R D S O N F A R M S V
R S U S T A I N A B I L I T YR S U S T A I N A B I L I T Y
Local native vegetation shouldcover at least 30 per cent of thetotal farm area
Over large areas of rural Australia less than10 per cent of the original vegetation remains, andthe goal of increasing this to 30 per cent on everyfarm might seem unrealistic. But research indicatesthat such a measure is necessary to keep farm treeshealthy, halt problems such as salinity and soil deterioration, and maintain optimum long-termproductivity.1,6,7
1
5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL:5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL 20/2/07 2:57 PM Page V
Insets, from top: This eroded
creekline would be a good
area to fence off to
encourage natural
regeneration. The large
trees will provide seed for
regenerating trees and draw
insectivorous birds to the
site. The regenerating trees
will control soil erosion.
Woodland birds such as this
Rufous Whistler (centre) and
Grey Fantail (below) are
more diverse where native
tree cover consists of two or
more types of tree species.
Below: Fencing to moderate
grazing pressure by livestock
allows tree regeneration
to occur.
Photos: (eroded creekline)
by David Tatnall; (whistler
and fantail) by Graeme
Chapman; (fenceline) by
David Neilson
Re-create local conditions
The context of the farm is important. Look to thetrees, shrubs and herbs in patches of remnant scruband along roadsides to find out what the originalvegetation was like, then try to recreate this habitatover at least 30 per cent of your farm. Ask your localnursery to provide local trees and shrubs forplanting. For re-establishing tree and shrub cover,the following strategies are ranked in order ofdesirability:
1 Protect existing remnant vegetation. Thisprovides the best habitat for wildlife and shouldbe the first option considered.
2 Allow local trees and shrubs to regenerate byremoving grazing stock. It costs up to $10 toplant a tree, so allowing trees to regeneratenaturally is an attractive option.
3 Plant native, locally occurring trees andshrubs. If regeneration is no longer possible,planting may be necessary. Bird diversity isgreater when a mix of local native trees andshrubs are planted.
4 Plant native non-local trees. Bird diversity islower where a monoculture stand of non-localspecies is planted; for example, Southern BlueGums planted in Western Australia.
5 Plant introduced trees. Some commonselections are Radiata Pine Pinus radiata andexotic shrubs such as hawthorns Crataegus spp.and cotoneasters Cotoneaster spp. This is theleast attractive option for native birds andcontributes to the spread of exotic species suchas European Starlings and House Sparrows.
VI B I R D S O N F A R M S
Woodland-dependent birds were 8 per cent more diverse in farm sites
where at least two different tree species were present. In such sites,
honeyeaters were 9 per cent and fruit-eaters 7 per cent more diverse.
Woodland-dependent birds were 21 per cent more diverse in
farm sites where trees had regenerated naturally compared with
sites where trees had been planted.
Small foliage-gleaning birds were 26 per cent less diverse in farm sites
where exotic trees had been planted instead of native trees. By contrast,
exotic birds were about five times more diverse in these sites.
2
5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL:5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL 20/2/07 2:57 PM Page VI
Exclude high-impact land uses fromat least 30 per cent of the farm area
Management of one-third of the farm should besympathetic to the local vegetation, and will depend onthe location of the farm. A property in eastern Australiais likely to have grassy woodlands that can tolerate (andmight even benefit from) moderate levels of grazing bylivestock. But a farm in the Western Australianwheatbelt is more likely to have woodland with aheathy understorey that, as well as being of lowproduction value, is damaged by livestock grazing.
Low-impact land uses such as limited seed,timber and honey collection are probablyacceptable, regardless of the location of the farm.However, land uses that have a high impact onnative vegetation, such as cropping, fertiliserapplication or frequent grazing should be excludedfrom at least 30 per cent of the farm area.Depending upon the sensitivity of the ruralenvironment, for example in steep country, high-impact land uses might be altogether inappropriate.
Above: Intensive land uses
such as this ploughing in the
Clare Valley of SA result in a
loss of ground-dwelling
birds.
Far left: Moderate to light
grazing levels and native
pastures favour native
pigeons such as the
Common Bronzewing.
Left: Trees and shrubs,
placed as windbreaks
around fields, reduce
visibility, deterring potential
crop pests such as Sulphur-
crested Cockatoos.
Bottom left: Planted, native
trees and grazing on native
pastures can serve to buffer
remnants of native
vegetation against high
impact land uses.
Photos: (ploughed land) by
Bill Bachman; (bronzewing)
by Rob Drummond;
(cockatoo) by Dave Watts;
(sheep) by David Neilson
B I R D S O N F A R M S VII
Cereal cropping reduced the diversity of woodland-dependent
birds, particularly understorey birds and ground-nesters.
Bird diversity, especially of ground-foraging birds, was lower in
farm sites to which fertiliser was applied over the last five years.
The diversity of birds, particularly ground-nesting and
understorey birds, was less on farm sites where ploughing
had occurred over at least 25 per cent of the area.
3
5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL:5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL 20/2/07 2:57 PM Page VII
Maintain native pastures and avoidheavy grazing
More than 50 per cent of the declining bird speciesin temperate Australia forage at least partly on theground, and depend to some extent upon nativepastures. Not surprisingly, native grasslandsassociated with richer farming soils are among themost endangered ecosystems in Australia.
In higher rainfall areas, native pastures with ahistory of superphosphate and sub-clover applicationcarry an average 80 per cent of the stocking rate ofpastures sown with introduced grasses. In fact, forlong-term pasture productivity, it has beenrecommended that at least 50 per cent of the pasturebe made up of native grass species.8
By maintaining a range of grazing regimes acrossthe property and avoiding heavy, continuous grazing,pasture and understorey diversity will be greater andbird diversity enhanced.
VIII B I R D S O N F A R M S
Bird diversity is re-established about 15 years after the removal of stock
from a heavily grazed site. This increase in diversity continues, reaching
a maximum diversity after about 25 years.
Ground-foraging birds were 16 per cent more diverse in sites with native
pasture. Diversity was lowest where fertiliser had been applied.
Understorey birds were most diverse in farm sites that were never
grazed (5 per cent increase) and were 9 per cent less diverse in
sites that were mostly grazed.
Total bird diversity decreased by 25 per cent in sites where much of the
ground cover had been removed, leaving smooth, lawn-like tufts.
4Clockwise from right: The
heathy understorey that
occurs naturally in this WA
Salmon Gum woodland is of
low production value and
sensitive to grazing.
Effects of continuous, heavy
grazing in Salmon Gum
woodland.
The tufted growth structure
associated with native
pastures that are not heavily
grazed favours ground-
dwelling birds such as the
Splendid Fairy-wren (above)
and Diamond Firetail (below).
When selecting areas of the
farm to set aside for
wildlife, include areas of
native pasture on the flatter,
richer country, as well as on
the poorer sloping country.
Photos: (Salmon Gum
woodland and firetail) by
Graeme Chapman; (fairy-
wren): BA collection; (native
pasture) by David Tatnall
5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL:5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL 20/2/07 2:57 PM Page VIII
Native vegetation cover should be inpatches of at least 10 ha and linkedby strips at least 50 m wide
For birds and wildlife, the 30 per cent of the farmthat is managed to protect local native vegetation isbest as a single large patch. This is because largepatches are less susceptible to impacts from thesurrounding agriculture. But land holders are likelyto want the tree and shrub cover to spread across theproperty as windbreaks and smaller patches, whichwill serve to protect stock and pasture from adverseweather conditions. A compromise is to spread the30 per cent of native vegetation across the farm, butmake the patches as large as possible and linked bystrips of native vegetation.
Clockwise from above: Strips
of native vegetation such as
this riparian belt along the
Murray River, near Echuca,
Vic., act as corridors,
allowing birds and other
wildlife to move through
farmland.
Most birds will have difficulty
getting into this small
isolated patch of mallee in a
winter wheatfield, near
Sea Lake, western Vic.
Scattered, isolated trees
appear to play an important
role in preserving wildlife.
Yet, as for this lone Salmon
Gum in WA’s wheatbelt,
there are often no young
trees to replace this valuable
resource.
Birds such as this Jacky
Winter (above) and Crested
Shrike-tit (below) are
generally absent from small,
isolated patches of tree
cover. They also use strips of
trees as flyways rather than
cross open fields.
Photos: (river and mallee
patch) by Bill Bachman;
(lone Salmon Gum, shrike-tit
and Jacky Winter) by
Graeme Chapman
B I R D S O N F A R M S IX
Bird diversity declined in patches of woodland smaller than 10 ha.
Woodland-dependent birds were 31 per cent more diverse in farm sites
surrounded by other woodland. By contrast, exotic birds were 51 per cent
more diverse in isolated farm sites.
Woodland-dependent birds were 12 per cent more diverse in broad strips
of native vegetation, compared with narrow strips (less than 50 m wide).
Ground-foraging birds were 12 per cent more diverse in these broad strips.
5
5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL:5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL 20/2/07 2:57 PM Page IX
Clockwise from top: This
small patch of remnant
woodland near Crows Nest
in Qld, with its large trees,
understorey shrubs and
native pastures, could be
managed for wildlife by
fencing to moderate
grazing and control of
weeds and feral animals.
Birds such as the Purple
Swamphen (left) and Banded
Lapwing (right) breed near
farm dams and waterways.
A farm dam close to tree and
shrub cover provides water
for birds and other wildlife.
Although they will feed on
crop pests, small,
insectivorous birds such as
the Speckled Warbler also
require patches of
woodland with native
grasses and fallen trees.
Photos: (woodland) by
Geoff Barrett; (swamphen
and lapwing) by Rob
Drummond; (dam) by David
Neilson; (warbler) by
Graeme Chapman
Manage at least 10 per cent of thefarm area for wildlife
Of the 30 per cent of the farm area that is local nativevegetation, one-third should be managed primarilyfor wildlife; that is, 10 per cent of the farm area. This10 per cent should include the ‘best’ habitat on thefarm. As a general rule, the more complex the habitatthe more bird species and other wildlife will bepresent. Managing for wildlife therefore meanscreating as much habitat diversity as possible,considering the structure of the original vegetation.
The location of the farm will influence the waythe wildlife habitat is managed. Aim to re-create theecosystem that occurs naturally in the local area. Ineastern Australia, grassy woodland managed forwildlife would:
• have a mix of local tree and shrub species,• include a dam or waterway,• have a mix of different tree ages, including large,
old trees and young, regenerating trees,• have fallen trees left to decompose naturally, • include native herbs, grasses and leaf litter• be fenced off to manage stock grazing levels.
Woodlands in southwestern Western Australiatend to have a shrub understorey rather than herbsand grasses. In the bluebush (Atriplex spp.) countryof South Australia, tree cover and fallen trees maybe uncommon in the area.
X B I R D S O N F A R M S
6
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Maintain a range of tree ages
Large, old trees carry a tangle of bark and leavesthrough which birds will forage for food, and whenthey flower, will draw birds from many kilometresaway. The increase in bird diversity where large, oldtrees occur is associated with an increase in the diversityof mammals such as bats, gliders and possums, as wellas lizards, frogs and bark invertebrates.
Clockwise from top: White-
browed Babblers and other
ground-feeding birds are
associated with older trees.
Planted trees, such as these
near Branxholme in western
Vic., are drawing birds back
into rural landscapes.
Living treasures: it takes at
least 80 years for trees to
develop large nest hollows.
One in five Australian birds
require nest hollows for
breeding, including the
(above) Laughing Kookaburra
and (below) Barn Owl
Photos: (babblers) by Rob
Drummond; (planted trees)
by David Neilson; (tree
hollow) by David Tatnall;
(owl and kookaburra) by
Dave Watts
B I R D S O N F A R M S XI
A critical age for planted trees appears to be between 5 and 10 years,
after which bird diversity is significantly greater.
The diversity of woodland-dependent hollow-nesting birds increased
by 20 per cent for every 10 large trees present.
Bird diversity increased by 30 per cent for every 10 large trees
present at a farm site.
The critical tree age for woodland-dependent ground-foragers
was around 35 years.
7
5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL:5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL 20/2/07 2:57 PM Page XI
Clockwise from top: On this
farm near Armidale in
northeastern NSW, fallen
trees encourage shrubs to
regenerate and leaf litter to
build up, creating habitat
for ground-foraging birds.
Aquatic insects in streams
and farm dams are also
encouraged by the presence
of logs, providing food for
birds such as swamphens
and kingfishers.
The Bush Stone-curlew
needs a combination of
moderate grazing pressure
to keep the grass low and
fallen branches for
camouflage.
Large trees (right) create
piles of decaying bark and
leaf-litter, ideal for ground-
foragers such as the (centre
right) Eastern Yellow Robin
and bark-foragers such as
the (far right) White-
throated Treecreeper.
Photos: (fallen logs)
by Geoff Barrett;
(stone-curlew) by Dave
Watts; (treecreeper) by
Graeme Chapman; (robin)
by Dave Watts; (bark tree)
by David Neilson
Leave fallen trees to breakdown naturally
A significant threat to farm birds and other wildlife isthe impulse to ‘tidy up’ the farm – clear that messyscrub patch or remove that fallen tree. This isunderstandable given that understorey shrubs andfallen trees harbour pests such as rabbits and foxes,and can be a fire risk. But feral pests can be controlledusing other means than removing the native habitat.And when positioned as windbreaks away fromproperty, native trees, shrubs and fallen trees(particularly if they are associated with wetlands) canslow the progress of fires. For advice on farm firerisks, contact your local fire authority.
XII B I R D S O N F A R M S
For every 10 fallen trees present in a farm site, the diversity of ground-
foraging birds increased by 30 per cent and bark-foraging birds by 70 per cent.
Total bird diversity was greater in farm sites with leaf litter, particularly
when the litter was present in dense clumps.
Total bird diversity was greater in farm sites with leaf litter, particularly
when the litter was present in dense clumps.
8
5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL:5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL 20/2/07 2:58 PM Page XII
Maintain shrub cover over at leastone-third of the area within a patchof farm trees
The location of the farm is important here: in theWestern Australian wheatbelt, understorey shrubsmay cover the whole of the area within a patch ofwoodland. Plant a diversity of locally occurringshrub species,9 but avoid planting too many nectar-producing shrubs. This may create a ‘honey pot’ thatwill be taken over by larger, aggressive honeyeaterssuch as Noisy Miners and Red Wattlebirds.
Clockwise from left:
Superb Fairy-wrens, Brown
Thornbills and Yellow-faced
Honeyeaters are among the
first birds to arrive when
understorey shrubs are
planted or regenerated.
Bottom left: Trees and
shrubs shelter crops and
stock against environmental
extremes. They also provide
protected nesting sites for
understorey birds, and
nectar and pollen for
insects, birds and mammals
such as Sugar Gliders.
Below: Fencing to moderate
grazing pressure by livestock
allows trees and understorey
shrubs to regenerate.
Photos: (flowering shrubs)
by David Neilson; (fenceline)
by David Tatnall; (fairy-
wren) by Dave Watts;
(honeyeater and thornbill)
by Graeme Chapman
B I R D S O N F A R M S XIII
In farm sites where understorey shrubs were present, there was a 31 per
cent increase in diversity of woodland-dependent birds. Small woodland-
dependent foliage-gleaners – birds that help to control the spread of
eucalypt dieback – increased by 24 per cent.
Noisy Miners were 78 per cent less likely to occur in sites where
understorey shrubs were present.
Ground-nesting birds were almost three times as diverse where
understorey was present.
9
5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL:5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL 20/2/07 2:58 PM Page XIII
Above right: Waterbirds
can roost and breed in
relative safety on this island,
created when this farm dam
was being build near
Mansfield, Vic.
Right: The familiar
White-faced Heron is
often seen hunting in the
shallows around the edges
of farm dams.
Centre right: A woodland
bird that depends on large
trees with nest hollows, the
Sacred Kingfisher will take
fish, shrimp, and other small
animals and insects from
the ground.
Far right: A diving duck that
swims underwater, the
Blue-billed Duck requires
farm dams with both deep
and shallow areas.
Bottom: Much of Australia’s
biodiversity is concentrated
around creeks and
billabongs, and is
threatened by heavy
grazing, and water being
diverted for agricultural
purposes.
Photos: (dam) by
Bill Bachman; (ducks
and kingfisher) by
Graeme Chapman; (heron)
by Dave Watts; (billabong)
by David Tatnall
Maintain native vegetationaround water
The health of farm dams and waterways can beimproved by maintaining tree, shrub and native grasscover in the immediate catchment of the wetland.For rivers, it is advisable that this buffer zone ofvegetation extend at least 100 m either side of thewaterway. Along creeks and small gullies a minimumof 50 m is recommended.10
XIV B I R D S O N F A R M S
A river or creekline resulted in a 21 per cent increase in the diversity
of woodland-dependent birds in a farm site.
Bird diversity increased by 3 per cent with each additional farm dam.
Small birds were 28 per cent more diverse and ground-nesters were
29 per cent more diverse when waterways were present.
For every 10 m increase in distance to the nearest permanent water source,
there was a 10 per cent decrease in waterbird diversity and a 5 per cent
decrease in diversity of ground-nesting birds.
With the addition of features such as dense shrubby vegetation, shallow
areas for birds to feed, islands or dead trees for birds to roost, or fencing to
exclude livestock, there was a 14 per cent increase in waterbird diversity. The
presence of two such features resulted in a 28 per cent increase in waterbird
diversity, three resulted in a 42 per cent increase in diversity, and so on.
10
5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL:5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL 20/2/07 2:58 PM Page XIV
W H E R E T O F R O M H E R E ?Involvement in the Birds on Farms survey increasedparticipants’ awareness of rural conservation issues. In20 per cent of cases, this led to changed managementpractices, such as planting more native trees andshrubs and leaving fallen trees to break down naturally.
Feedback from participants suggests that amuch greater proportion of farmers would bewilling to implement the recommendations madehere, were it not for the short-term costs involved.However, the responsibility for making agriculturesustainable lies with the whole Australiancommunity, not just individual farmers, and needsto be considered against the estimated $1 billionthat land degradation costs the nation each year.
Many of the guidelines from the Birds on Farmsproject are being adopted by land managers, andincorporated into farm planning procedures. Thesurvey methods have also been incorporated into BirdsAustralia’s national Atlas of Australian Birds, currentlymonitoring changes to birds and the environment atmore than 6000 sites around Australia.
Below: This typical
farmscape in Victoria’s south
Gippsland has about 5 per
cent tree cover, not enough
to halt the decline of
woodland birds and
preserve the ecosystem
process on which long-term
agricultural production
depends.
Inset: With the help of
community-based organi-
sations such as Landcare,
Greening Australia and Land
for Wildlife, new ways must
be found to continue
agricultural production
while protecting natural
ecosystems.
Photos by David Tatnall
B I R D S O N F A R M S XV
W H E R E T O F R O M H E R E ?The Birds on Farms book, available from
Birds Australia, provides a fuller description of theresults, including background information to theguidelines in this article. An interactive program,Remnants, is available at the Birds Australia website(www.birdsaustralia.com.au/remnants). Thisprogram can be used to diagnose the general healthof your farm, and gives suggestions for improvingbird diversity.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTSWe are indebted to the Thyne Reid Education Trust for providing the funding for the Birds on Farms project, and to EnvironmentAustralia whose Save the Bush Fund (Natural Heritage Trust) provided seed money to get the project started. The Norman WettenhallFoundation also provided valuable assistance during the analysis and writing stages. A special thank you to Brenda Newbey, who as theWestern Australian Co-ordinator for the Birds on Farms survey, was crucial to the success of the survey in that region. Also to KenHancock who spent long hours vetting the survey data and cleaning up the database. The following people were on the SteeringCommittee for the project and provided valuable advice throughout the project: Stephen Ambrose, David Baker-Gabb, Ian Davidson,Doug Robinson, Neil MacFarland, Andrew Bennett, Richard Loyn, Stephen Platt, Helen Alexander, Kate Mashford and Susan Wright.Thank you also to the 500 or so participants who took part in the survey or offered their farms for others to survey. Edited by David Meagher and Merrilyn Julian; layout and production by P.A.G.E. Pty Ltd; printing by Jenkin Buxton Printers Pty Ltd.
5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL:5217.BIR.DecSuppFINAL 20/2/07 2:58 PM Page XV
CONSERVATION THROUGH KNOWLEDGE
ACN 004 076 475415 Riversdale Road, Hawthorn East, Vic. 3123Tel: (03) 9882 2622; Fax: (03) 9882 2677Email: mail@birdsaustralia.com.auBirds Australia Home Page: http://www.birdsaustralia.com.au
Founded in 1901, Birds Australia (Royal Australasian OrnithologistsUnion) is Australia’s oldest national conservation organisation,dedicated to the study and conservation of native birds and their habitat.New members are welcome.
Funding for the Birds on Farms project and publicationof this supplement was generously provided by the
Thyne Reid Education Trust.
Additional funding was also generously provided by Environment Australia (National Heritage Trust)
and the Norman Wettenhall Foundation.
Since 1901 Birds Australia (Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union) hasworked for the conservation of Australia’s birds and their habitats,principally through scientific research. It is an independent, not-for-profitorganisation with over 20,000 members and supporters, and the provenability to inspire the involvement of thousands of volunteers in itsconservation projects. It relies on the financial support of companies, trustsand foundations and private individuals. New members are welcome.
Wingspan is the quarterly membership magazine of Birds Australia.Additional copies of this supplement are available from the
National Office.
Printed on recycled paper.
R E F E R E N C E S
1. Barr, N. & J. Cary 1994. Greening a Brown Land.Macmillan: South Melbourne.
2. Catterall, C. 1991. ‘On the importance of watchingbirds.’ Wildlife Australia, Autumn, pp. 3–5.
3. Beckmann, R. 1989–90. ‘Rural dieback: restoringbalance.’ Ecos, vol. 62, pp. 8–15.
4. Ford, H. A. 1989. Ecology of birds – an Australianperspective. Surrey Beatty: Sydney.
5. SCA 1991. Sustainable Agriculture, Report to theAustralian Agriculture Council by a Working Groupin Sustainable Agriculture. Standing Committee onAgriculture Technical Report No. 36. CSIRO:Melbourne.
6. Andrén, H. 1994. ‘Effects of habitat fragmentationon birds and mammals in landscapes with differentproportions of suitable habitat: a review.’ Oikos,vol. 71, pp. 355–66.
7. Walpole, S. C. 1999. ‘Assessment of the economicand ecological impacts of remnant vegetation onpasture productivity.’ Pacific Conservation Biology,vol. 5, pp. 28–35.
8. Simpson, P. & C. Langford 1996. Managing HighRainfall Native Pastures on a Whole Farm Basis. NSWAgriculture: Sydney.
9. Davidson, R. & S. Davidson (eds.) 1992. Bushland onfarms – do you have a choice? Canberra: AGPS.
10. McIntyre S., McIvor J. G. & MacLeod N. D. 2000.‘Principles for sustainable grazing in eucalyptwoodlands: landscape-scale indicators and the searchthresholds’, in Management for Sustainable Ecosystems,eds. P. Hale, A. Petrie, D. Moloney & P. Sattler.Centre for Conservation Biology, University ofQueensland: Brisbane.
Cover photo: Rural landscape near Mansfield, northeastern Victoria;
inset from top: New Holland Honeyeater; Red-capped Robin;
Pacific Black Ducks.
Photos: (landscape) by Bill Bachman; (honeyeater) by Dave Watts;
(robin) by Rob Drummond; (ducks) by Graeme Chapman
JOIN TODAYBy joining Birds Australia, you help Australia’s
wild birds and their habitats. Whether youparticipate in the activities and research or just
enjoy Australia’s leading bird magazine Wingspan, your subscription is hard at work,
safeguarding our beautiful birds.
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