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Cambridge University Press978-1-107-12602-2 — The Defiant Border
Elisabeth Leake
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www.cambridge.org© in this web service Cambridge University Press
The Dei ant Border
The Dei ant Border explores why the Afghan– Pakistan borderlands
have remained largely independent of state controls from the colonial
period into the twenty- i rst century. This book looks at local Pashtun
tribes’ modes for evading i rst British colonial, then Pakistani gover-
nance; the ongoing border dispute between Pakistan and Afghanistan;
and continuing interest in the region from Indian, U.S., British, and
Soviet actors. It reveals active attempts by i rst British, then Pakistani
agents to integrate the tribal region, ranging from development ini-
tiatives to violent suppression. The Dei ant Border also considers the
area’s inl uence on relations between Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India,
as well as its role in the United States’ increasingly global Cold War
policies. Ultimately, this book considers how a region so peripheral to
major centers of power has had such an impact on political choices
throughout the eras of empire, decolonization, and superpower com-
petition, up to the so- called War on Terror.
Elisabeth Leake is a Lecturer in International History at the University
of Leeds. She previously held a Leverhulme Early Career Fellowship
at Royal Holloway, University of London. She has published arti-
cles in The Historical Journal, Modern Asian Studies , and The
International History Review . She is coeditor, alongside Leslie James, of
Decolonization and the Cold War: Negotiating Independence (2015),
and has coedited a special issue of Contemporary South Asia on South
Asia's “wider worlds.”
Cambridge University Press978-1-107-12602-2 — The Defiant Border
Elisabeth Leake
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Cambridge University Press978-1-107-12602-2 — The Defiant Border
Elisabeth Leake
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Cambridge Studies in US Foreign Relations
Edited by
Paul Thomas Chamberlin, University of Kentucky Lien- Hang T. Nguyen, University of Kentucky
This series showcases cutting- edge scholarship in US foreign relations that employs dynamic new methodological approaches and archives from the colonial era to the present. The series will be guided by the ethos of transnationalism, focusing on the history of American foreign relations in a global context rather than privileging the United States as the dominant actor on the world stage.
Also in the Series
Renata Keller , Mexico’s Cold War: Cuba, the United States, and the Legacy of the Mexican Revolution
Michael Neagle , America’s Forgotten Colony: Cuba’s Isle of Pines
Cambridge University Press978-1-107-12602-2 — The Defiant Border
Elisabeth Leake
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Cambridge University Press978-1-107-12602-2 — The Defiant Border
Elisabeth Leake
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The Dei ant Border
The Afghan– Pakistan Borderlands in the
Era of Decolonization, 1936– 1965
ELISABETH LEAKE
University of Leeds
Cambridge University Press978-1-107-12602-2 — The Defiant Border
Elisabeth Leake
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One Liberty Plaza New York, NY 10006 USA
Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.
It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of
education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.
www.cambridge.org
Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/ 9781107571563
© Elisabeth Leake 2017
This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception
and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,
no reproduction of any part may take place without the written
permission of Cambridge University Press.
First published 2017
Printed in the United States of America by Sheridan Books
A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.
Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data
Names: Leake, Elisabeth, author.
Title: The dei ant border: the Afghan–Pakistan borderlands in the era of
decolonization, 1936–1965 / Elisabeth Leake (University of Leeds).
Description: New York, NY : Cambridge University Press, 2017. |
Series: Cambridge studies in US foreign relations |
Includes bibliographical references and index.
Identii ers: LCCN 2016017603| ISBN 9781107126022 (hardback) |
ISBN 9781107571563 (paperback)
Subjects: LCSH: Afghanistan – Relations – Pakistan. | Pakistan – Relations –
Afghanistan. | Borderlands – Afghanistan – History – 20th century. | Borderlands –
Pakistan – History – 20th century. | Decolonization – South Asia – History –
20th century. | Pushtuns – History – 20th century. | Afghanistan – Politics and
government – 20th century. | Pakistan – Politics and government – 20th century. |
World politics – 1933–1945. | World politics – 1945–1989.
Classii cation: LCC DS 357.6. P 18 L 43 2017 | DDC 327.5491058109/04–dc23
LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016017603
ISBN 978- 1- 107- 12602- 2 Hardback
ISBN 978- 1- 107- 57156- 3 Paperback
Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URL s
for external or third- party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not
guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.
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vii
Contents
Preface and Acknowledgments page ix
List of Abbreviations xiii
Introduction: “A Doughty and Honourable Opponent”: Historicizing the Afghan– Pakistan Borderlands 1
1 “Using a Crowbar to Swat Wasps”: The Frontier Tribal Area in Imperial Defense 20
2 The “Opening of Sluice- Gates”: Plan Partition and the Frontier 66
3 “We Are One People and Ours Is a Land”: The Demand for Pashtunistan, 1948– 1952 104
4 A “Friendly Point of Return”: Pakistan and the Global Cold War 149
5 An “Eye for an Eye”: Mohammad Ayub Khan and the Collapse of Regional Relations 196
Conclusion: “Religion, Land, Lineage and Honour”: The Afghan– Pakistan Borderlands Then and Now 237
Index 255
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ix
Preface and Acknowledgments
I was introduced to Pakistan’s frontier tribal area as an undergraduate
at Yale University, where hours spent reading Kim , watching The Man
Who Would Be King , or debating more critical questions about impe-
rial governance with Paul Kennedy sparked my interest in the region.
Ever since, Paul has continued to show eager interest in the progress of
a book that likely would not have emerged without those early discus-
sions. At the University of Cambridge, Christopher Bayly generously and
kindly guided me through my doctorate. Chris was the best of mentors,
constantly providing wise advice, trips to the pub, and a wry sense of
humor. He went to great lengths to help this book develop, even having
an emergency cup of coffee in Washington, DC, during an eight- hour
layover. I am particularly grateful for Chris’s encouragement to blur the
boundaries between global and regional histories and not to submit to
any particular classii cation. I am deeply saddened that Chris did not live
to see this book’s publication, but I hope it can live up to his legacy.
I am grateful for the i nancial support provided by the Cambridge
Overseas Trust, Faculty of History, Smuts Memorial Fund, Cambridge–
India Partnership, and Corpus Christi College during my doctorate, and
for a subsequent fellowship at Royal Holloway, University of London,
funded by the Leverhulme Trust and the college. The University of
London’s Isobel Thorney Fund generously paid for the cover image and
other help. I am further indebted to the wonderful archivists, librarians,
and staff at the British, U.S., and Indian National Archives, the National
Documentation Centre in Islamabad, the British Library, the Eisenhower
Presidential Library, the Imperial War Museum, and the Churchill College
Archives Centre.
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I have incurred numerous debts through the writing of this book, most
of which I can never hope to repay. Daniel Haines took time from his
own research to guide me through Islamabad, and he also has read more
drafts of this book than either of us would care to admit. Tahir Kamran
and his family generously facilitated my research trip to Islamabad,
making me feel so welcome, as did Samina Awan. Patrick Clibbens and
Benjamin Siegel played a similar role in Delhi. Arne Westad and Francis
Robinson both have championed the project, offering invaluable advice
on its revisions. The Department of History at Royal Holloway has been
a warm, welcoming community as I i nished this project, and I am partic-
ularly thankful to Sarah Ansari and Francis for their support and advice.
Members of the National History Center’s 2011 International Seminar
on Decolonization provided a crucial sounding board for my ideas, and
gave me a welcome community of scholars with similar historical inter-
ests. Dane Kennedy, Philippa Levine, Roger Louis, and Jason Parker have
been generous friends and mentors far beyond the end of the seminar. My
fellow “seminarian,” Brian McNeil, provided both camaraderie and i les
from the Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library. Sarah, Ben, Andrew
Arsan, Joya Chatterji, and Shah Mahmoud Hanii all offered comments
on various drafts. I am grateful for their efforts to improve and nuance the
manuscript; obviously any remaining faults or errors are solely my own.
I have been particularly blessed to have the Centre of South Asian
Studies at the University of Cambridge as my intellectual home ever since
moving to the United Kingdom. There, Barbara Roe, Kevin Greenbank,
and Rachel Rowe have provided academic, technical, moral, and emo-
tional support throughout this book’s entire trajectory. Barb and another
non- historian, Alison Knight, also helped me to retain some sense of
broader perspective throughout the project. The Centre also provided
a vibrant group of friends and colleagues, including Mark Condos,
Derek Elliott, Simon Layton, Sunil Purushotham, and Faridah Zaman,
who made writing this book much more enjoyable. Andrew Preston
and Charlie Laderman welcomed my forays into the world of U.S. for-
eign relations, and their inl uence, as well as that of Leslie James, can be
seen in this book’s international angles. Paul Chamberlin and Lien- Hang
Nguyen fostered this as well through their support for the project and by
including it in their series. Debbie Gershenowitz and her assistants, Dana
and Kris, at Cambridge University Press have ensured that this book has
seen fruition.
This book could never have occurred without the love and support of
my parents, Ray Leake and Julie Shimada. They were the i rst people to
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Preface and Acknowledgments xi
encourage my love of history, and they have sell essly supported my work
as it has moved further ai eld. My father has been a willing partner in
crime, accompanying me from those early days exploring U.S. Civil War
battlei elds, to my i rst visit to the British Library, to a tour through the
chaos of Old Delhi. My mother altruistically settled for a relationship
largely conducted by Skype; she has gamely listened to me rattle on about
my work, and her care packages and sage wisdom have accompanied
me across the world. This book is dedicated to them, as well as to the
memory of Chris. Finally, Harry Bullivant has unceasingly supported this
project. His endless patience and love have provided the foundation for
its completion.
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xiii
Abbreviations
CID: Committee of Imperial Defence CRO: Commonwealth Relations Ofi ce DDRS: Declassii ed Documents Reference System EA: Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India EPL: Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene,
Kansas, United States FO: Foreign Ofi ce, United Kingdom FRUS: Foreign Relations of the United States HMSO: Her Majesty’s Stationary Ofi ce IAF: Indian Air Force IOR: India Ofi ce Records, British Library, London, United
Kingdom LBJL: Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library, Austin, Texas,
United States LC: Library of Congress, Washington, DC, United States NAI: National Archives of India, New Delhi, India NAP: National Awami Party NARA: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, College
Park, Maryland, United States NDC: National Documentation Centre, Islamabad, Pakistan NSC: National Security Council NWFP: North- West Frontier Province OCB: Operations Coordinating Board OSAA: Ofi ce of South Asian Affairs RAF: Royal Air Force SOA: Ofi ce of South Asian Affairs UKNA: The National Archives, Kew, United Kingdom USGPO: U.S. Government Printing Ofi ce
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0 250 500 750 1000 km
0 250 500 miles
PAKISTAN
BURMA
AksaiChin
AFGHANISTAN
S O V I E T U N I O N
I N D I A
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B e n g a l
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Nicobar Islands
CEYLON
I N D I A N O C E A N
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Delhi
Karachi
Kabul
Katmandu
Lahore
Rawalpindi
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Dacca
Area occupied by China,claimed by India
Line of control agreed to by Indiaand Pakistan in January 1949
EAST
IR
AN
WE S T
P
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I. South Asia, c. 1950
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0 50 100 150 200 km
0 5025 75 100 miles
0 50 100 150 200 km
0 5025 75 100 miles
Chitral
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II. The North-West Frontier Province and Tribal Area, 1907 and 1972
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0 50 100 150 km
0 50 100 miles
Kabul
Durand line
Approximate tribal boundary
Eastern Pashtuns(Khakhal and Ghorijh and allied tribes)
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Ghurghusht Pashtuns
Settled Ghalji and Lodietc tribes
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III. Pashtuns of the Afghan-Pakistan Borderlands
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0 250 500 750 1000 km
0 250 500 miles
EAST PAKISTAN
AksaiChin
AFGHANISTAN
S O V I E T U N I O N
I N D I A
C H I N A
T i b e t
NEPAL
BHUTAN
Delhi
Kabul
Peshawar
Dacca
SOVIET
UNION
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TERR. OFAFARS & ISSAS
ETHIOPIA
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Aden
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S
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IV. Pakistan in the Cold War
Recommended