America s Forgotten Colony: Cuba s Isle of Pines Michael ...assets.cambridge.org/97811071/26022/frontmatter/9781107126022... · ests. Dane Kennedy, Philippa Levine, Roger Louis, and

Cambridge University Press978-1-107-12602-2 — The Defiant Border

Elisabeth Leake

Frontmatter

More Information

www.cambridge.org© in this web service Cambridge University Press

The Dei ant Border

The Dei ant Border explores why the Afghan– Pakistan borderlands

have remained largely independent of state controls from the colonial

period into the twenty- i rst century. This book looks at local Pashtun

tribes’ modes for evading i rst British colonial, then Pakistani gover-

nance; the ongoing border dispute between Pakistan and Afghanistan;

and continuing interest in the region from Indian, U.S., British, and

Soviet actors. It reveals active attempts by i rst British, then Pakistani

agents to integrate the tribal region, ranging from development ini-

tiatives to violent suppression. The Dei ant Border also considers the

area’s inl uence on relations between Pakistan, Afghanistan, and India,

as well as its role in the United States’ increasingly global Cold War

policies. Ultimately, this book considers how a region so peripheral to

major centers of power has had such an impact on political choices

throughout the eras of empire, decolonization, and superpower com-

petition, up to the so- called War on Terror.

Elisabeth Leake is a Lecturer in International History at the University

of Leeds. She previously held a Leverhulme Early Career Fellowship

at Royal Holloway, University of London. She has published arti-

cles in The Historical Journal, Modern Asian Studies , and The

International History Review . She is coeditor, alongside Leslie James, of

Decolonization and the Cold War: Negotiating Independence (2015),

and has coedited a special issue of Contemporary South Asia on South

Asia's “wider worlds.”

www.cambridge.org/9781107126022

www.cambridge.org


Elisabeth Leake

Frontmatter

More Information



www.cambridge.org


Elisabeth Leake

Frontmatter

More Information


Cambridge Studies in US Foreign Relations

Edited by

Paul Thomas Chamberlin, University of Kentucky Lien- Hang T. Nguyen, University of Kentucky

This series showcases cutting- edge scholarship in US foreign relations that employs dynamic new methodological approaches and archives from the colonial era to the present. The series will be guided by the ethos of transnationalism, focusing on the history of American foreign relations in a global context rather than privileging the United States as the dominant actor on the world stage.

Also in the Series

Renata Keller , Mexico’s Cold War: Cuba, the United States, and the Legacy of the Mexican Revolution

Michael Neagle , America’s Forgotten Colony: Cuba’s Isle of Pines


www.cambridge.org


Elisabeth Leake

Frontmatter

More Information



www.cambridge.org


Elisabeth Leake

Frontmatter

More Information


The Dei ant Border

The Afghan– Pakistan Borderlands in the

Era of Decolonization, 1936– 1965

ELISABETH LEAKE

University of Leeds


www.cambridge.org


Elisabeth Leake

Frontmatter

More Information


One Liberty Plaza New York, NY 10006 USA

Cambridge University Press is part of the University of Cambridge.

It furthers the University’s mission by disseminating knowledge in the pursuit of

education, learning, and research at the highest international levels of excellence.

www.cambridge.org

Information on this title: www.cambridge.org/ 9781107571563

© Elisabeth Leake 2017

This publication is in copyright. Subject to statutory exception

and to the provisions of relevant collective licensing agreements,

no reproduction of any part may take place without the written

permission of Cambridge University Press.

First published 2017

Printed in the United States of America by Sheridan Books

A catalogue record for this publication is available from the British Library.

Library of Congress Cataloging- in- Publication Data

Names: Leake, Elisabeth, author.

Title: The dei ant border: the Afghan–Pakistan borderlands in the era of

decolonization, 1936–1965 / Elisabeth Leake (University of Leeds).

Description: New York, NY : Cambridge University Press, 2017. |

Series: Cambridge studies in US foreign relations |

Includes bibliographical references and index.

Identii ers: LCCN 2016017603| ISBN 9781107126022 (hardback) |

ISBN 9781107571563 (paperback)

Subjects: LCSH: Afghanistan – Relations – Pakistan. | Pakistan – Relations –

Afghanistan. | Borderlands – Afghanistan – History – 20th century. | Borderlands –

Pakistan – History – 20th century. | Decolonization – South Asia – History –

20th century. | Pushtuns – History – 20th century. | Afghanistan – Politics and

government – 20th century. | Pakistan – Politics and government – 20th century. |

World politics – 1933–1945. | World politics – 1945–1989.

Classii cation: LCC DS 357.6. P 18 L 43 2017 | DDC 327.5491058109/04–dc23

LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2016017603

ISBN 978- 1- 107- 12602- 2 Hardback

ISBN 978- 1- 107- 57156- 3 Paperback

Cambridge University Press has no responsibility for the persistence or accuracy of URL s

for external or third- party Internet Web sites referred to in this publication and does not

guarantee that any content on such Web sites is, or will remain, accurate or appropriate.


www.cambridge.org


Elisabeth Leake

Frontmatter

More Information


vii

Contents

Preface and Acknowledgments page ix

List of Abbreviations xiii

Introduction: “A Doughty and Honourable Opponent”: Historicizing the Afghan– Pakistan Borderlands 1

1 “Using a Crowbar to Swat Wasps”: The Frontier Tribal Area in Imperial Defense 20

2 The “Opening of Sluice- Gates”: Plan Partition and the Frontier 66

3 “We Are One People and Ours Is a Land”: The Demand for Pashtunistan, 1948– 1952 104

4 A “Friendly Point of Return”: Pakistan and the Global Cold War 149

5 An “Eye for an Eye”: Mohammad Ayub Khan and the Collapse of Regional Relations 196

Conclusion: “Religion, Land, Lineage and Honour”: The Afghan– Pakistan Borderlands Then and Now 237

Index 255


www.cambridge.org


Elisabeth Leake

Frontmatter

More Information



www.cambridge.org


Elisabeth Leake

Frontmatter

More Information


ix

Preface and Acknowledgments

I was introduced to Pakistan’s frontier tribal area as an undergraduate

at Yale University, where hours spent reading Kim , watching The Man

Who Would Be King , or debating more critical questions about impe-

rial governance with Paul Kennedy sparked my interest in the region.

Ever since, Paul has continued to show eager interest in the progress of

a book that likely would not have emerged without those early discus-

sions. At the University of Cambridge, Christopher Bayly generously and

kindly guided me through my doctorate. Chris was the best of mentors,

constantly providing wise advice, trips to the pub, and a wry sense of

humor. He went to great lengths to help this book develop, even having

an emergency cup of coffee in Washington, DC, during an eight- hour

layover. I am particularly grateful for Chris’s encouragement to blur the

boundaries between global and regional histories and not to submit to

any particular classii cation. I am deeply saddened that Chris did not live

to see this book’s publication, but I hope it can live up to his legacy.

I am grateful for the i nancial support provided by the Cambridge

Overseas Trust, Faculty of History, Smuts Memorial Fund, Cambridge–

India Partnership, and Corpus Christi College during my doctorate, and

for a subsequent fellowship at Royal Holloway, University of London,

funded by the Leverhulme Trust and the college. The University of

London’s Isobel Thorney Fund generously paid for the cover image and

other help. I am further indebted to the wonderful archivists, librarians,

and staff at the British, U.S., and Indian National Archives, the National

Documentation Centre in Islamabad, the British Library, the Eisenhower

Presidential Library, the Imperial War Museum, and the Churchill College

Archives Centre.


www.cambridge.org


Elisabeth Leake

Frontmatter

More Information


Preface and Acknowledgmentsx

I have incurred numerous debts through the writing of this book, most

of which I can never hope to repay. Daniel Haines took time from his

own research to guide me through Islamabad, and he also has read more

drafts of this book than either of us would care to admit. Tahir Kamran

and his family generously facilitated my research trip to Islamabad,

making me feel so welcome, as did Samina Awan. Patrick Clibbens and

Benjamin Siegel played a similar role in Delhi. Arne Westad and Francis

Robinson both have championed the project, offering invaluable advice

on its revisions. The Department of History at Royal Holloway has been

a warm, welcoming community as I i nished this project, and I am partic-

ularly thankful to Sarah Ansari and Francis for their support and advice.

Members of the National History Center’s 2011 International Seminar

on Decolonization provided a crucial sounding board for my ideas, and

gave me a welcome community of scholars with similar historical inter-

ests. Dane Kennedy, Philippa Levine, Roger Louis, and Jason Parker have

been generous friends and mentors far beyond the end of the seminar. My

fellow “seminarian,” Brian McNeil, provided both camaraderie and i les

from the Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library. Sarah, Ben, Andrew

Arsan, Joya Chatterji, and Shah Mahmoud Hanii all offered comments

on various drafts. I am grateful for their efforts to improve and nuance the

manuscript; obviously any remaining faults or errors are solely my own.

I have been particularly blessed to have the Centre of South Asian

Studies at the University of Cambridge as my intellectual home ever since

moving to the United Kingdom. There, Barbara Roe, Kevin Greenbank,

and Rachel Rowe have provided academic, technical, moral, and emo-

tional support throughout this book’s entire trajectory. Barb and another

non- historian, Alison Knight, also helped me to retain some sense of

broader perspective throughout the project. The Centre also provided

a vibrant group of friends and colleagues, including Mark Condos,

Derek Elliott, Simon Layton, Sunil Purushotham, and Faridah Zaman,

who made writing this book much more enjoyable. Andrew Preston

and Charlie Laderman welcomed my forays into the world of U.S. for-

eign relations, and their inl uence, as well as that of Leslie James, can be

seen in this book’s international angles. Paul Chamberlin and Lien- Hang

Nguyen fostered this as well through their support for the project and by

including it in their series. Debbie Gershenowitz and her assistants, Dana

and Kris, at Cambridge University Press have ensured that this book has

seen fruition.

This book could never have occurred without the love and support of

my parents, Ray Leake and Julie Shimada. They were the i rst people to


www.cambridge.org


Elisabeth Leake

Frontmatter

More Information


Preface and Acknowledgments xi

encourage my love of history, and they have sell essly supported my work

as it has moved further ai eld. My father has been a willing partner in

crime, accompanying me from those early days exploring U.S. Civil War

battlei elds, to my i rst visit to the British Library, to a tour through the

chaos of Old Delhi. My mother altruistically settled for a relationship

largely conducted by Skype; she has gamely listened to me rattle on about

my work, and her care packages and sage wisdom have accompanied

me across the world. This book is dedicated to them, as well as to the

memory of Chris. Finally, Harry Bullivant has unceasingly supported this

project. His endless patience and love have provided the foundation for

its completion.


www.cambridge.org


Elisabeth Leake

Frontmatter

More Information



www.cambridge.org


Elisabeth Leake

Frontmatter

More Information


xiii

Abbreviations

CID: Committee of Imperial Defence CRO: Commonwealth Relations Ofi ce DDRS: Declassii ed Documents Reference System EA: Ministry of External Affairs, Government of India EPL: Dwight D. Eisenhower Presidential Library, Abilene,

Kansas, United States FO: Foreign Ofi ce, United Kingdom FRUS: Foreign Relations of the United States HMSO: Her Majesty’s Stationary Ofi ce IAF: Indian Air Force IOR: India Ofi ce Records, British Library, London, United

Kingdom LBJL: Lyndon B. Johnson Presidential Library, Austin, Texas,

United States LC: Library of Congress, Washington, DC, United States NAI: National Archives of India, New Delhi, India NAP: National Awami Party NARA: U.S. National Archives and Records Administration, College

Park, Maryland, United States NDC: National Documentation Centre, Islamabad, Pakistan NSC: National Security Council NWFP: North- West Frontier Province OCB: Operations Coordinating Board OSAA: Ofi ce of South Asian Affairs RAF: Royal Air Force SOA: Ofi ce of South Asian Affairs UKNA: The National Archives, Kew, United Kingdom USGPO: U.S. Government Printing Ofi ce


www.cambridge.org


Elisabeth Leake

Frontmatter

More Information


0 250 500 750 1000 km

0 250 500 miles

PAKISTAN

BURMA

AksaiChin

AFGHANISTAN

S O V I E T U N I O N

I N D I A

B a y o f

B e n g a l

A r a b i a n

S e a

Andaman Islands

Nicobar Islands

CEYLON

I N D I A N O C E A N

C H I N A

T i b e t

NEPALBHUTAN

Delhi

Karachi

Kabul

Katmandu

Lahore

Rawalpindi

Peshawar

Dacca

Area occupied by China,claimed by India

Line of control agreed to by Indiaand Pakistan in January 1949

EAST

IR

AN

WE S T

P

AK

I STA

N

I. South Asia, c. 1950


www.cambridge.org


Elisabeth Leake

Frontmatter

More Information


0 50 100 150 200 km

0 5025 75 100 miles

0 50 100 150 200 km

0 5025 75 100 miles

Chitral

C H I T R A L

Dir

S W A T

Mardan HAZARA

BUNERBAJA

UR

P U N C H

JAMMU

Rawalpindi

PeshawarPESHAWAR

HanguK O H A T

P U N J A B

NAOSHERA

K A S H M I R

Srinagar

G I L G I T

H U N Z A

KU

RR

AM

SOUTHERN

Miranshah

A F G H A N I S T A N

Kabul

Kohat

BANNU

Dera IsmailKhan

DERA ISMAIL

KHAN

BALUCHISTAN

WanaWAZIRISTAN

FortSandeman

Bannu

Abbottabad

Pezu

Thal

Mianwah

Shahpur

NORTHERN

WAZIRISTAN

Landi Kotal

Parachinar

N O R T H - W E S T

F R O N T I E R

P R O V I N C E

Chitral

C H I T R A L

Dir

S W A T

Mardan

HAZARA

Rawalpindi

Peshawar

Hangu

KOHAT

P U N J A B

Srinagar

G I L G I T A G E N C Y

H U N Z A

SOUTH

Miranshah


Kabul

Kohat

BANNU

Dera IsmailKhan

DERA

ISMAIL

KHAN

BALUCHISTAN

Wana

WAZIRISTAN

FortSandeman

Bannu

Abbottabad

Pezu

Thal

Mianwah

Shahpur

Landi Kotal

Parachinar

J A M M U

a n d

K A S H M I R

NORTH-WEST FRONTIER PROVINCE

NORTH

WAZIRISTAN

KHYBER

ORAKSAI

BaghKURRAM

Islamabad

(disputed territory)

J A M M U

a n d

K A S H M I R BAJAURMO

HM

AN

D MARDAN

MALAKAND

KharSaidu

Kabul R.

Kurra

m

R.

Indu

s R.

Sw

at

R.

Ind

us

R.

Jhelu

m R.

Chenab R.

Kabul R.

Indu

s R.

Sw

at

R.

Ind

us

R.

Jhelu

m R.

Chenab R.

Durand line

Provincial boundary

Divisional boundary

Tribal area

Durand line

Provincial boundary

Divisional boundary

Tribal area

II. The North-West Frontier Province and Tribal Area, 1907 and 1972


www.cambridge.org


Elisabeth Leake

Frontmatter

More Information


0 50 100 150 km

0 50 100 miles

Kabul

Durand line

Approximate tribal boundary

Eastern Pashtuns(Khakhal and Ghorijh and allied tribes)

Karlanri Pashtuns

Ghurghusht Pashtuns

Settled Ghalji and Lodietc tribes

Western Pashtuns

Ghaljis of AfghanistanTA

RKLANRI

MOMAND

YUSUFZAI

KHUGIANI

SHINWARI

1

2

3 4

5

1 Safi2 Utman3 Khel4 Utman Khel5 Khatak6 Muhammadzai7 Gigiani8 Shilman9 Mallagori10 Chamkani11 Daudzai12 Khalil13 Bari Mohands14 Mixed Tribes15 Gadun-Jadun16 Mashwani17 Tarin18 Jadun19 Zaimukht20 Daur

678

9

10

11

12

13

14

15

1617

18Kabul

Rawalpindi

Abbottabad

19

20

MUQBIL

JA

JI

MANGAL

CHAMKANI

TANIJA

DR

AN

KHOSTW

AL

KHOST

BIRMAL

MAHSUD

KH E L

KUNDI

W A Z I R

BANNUCHI

NI A

ZI

KHASO

R

MA

RW

AT

LOHANI BALUCH

WAZIRISTAN

GH

A

L

J

I

ZURMAT


P A K I S T A N

DU

RR

A

N

I

A

CH

AKZA I

TOBA

TORTARIN

TORTARIN

BRAHUI

AND BALUCH

BA

LU

CH

IS

TA

N

B AL

UC

H

T

RI

BE

S

Quetta

Dera GhaziKhan

Dera IsmailKhan

Multan

Mari

K A K A R

K A K A R

L U N I

SP

I N T A R I N

MUSAKHEL

ISOT

JAFA

R

BA

BA

R

GA

NDAPUR

LOHANI

SHIRANI

KHETRAN

USTA

RA

NA

ZM

ARA

T

FANR

H A Z A R A J AT

MIAN RAE

DOTANJI

ZA

RM

ELAN

PeshawarA F R I

D

I

B A N G A S H

K HA

TA

K

TU

RI

O R A K Z A I

MANDANR YUSUFZA

Kohat

Thal

BannuUrgun

WanaPezu

FortSandeman

Loralai

Daggar

PU

N

J

A

B

DA

RW

ES

H

BH

IT

AN

NI

MANDO

KHELKundar R

.

Zhob R.

Indu

s R.

Jeh

lam

R. C

henab

R.

III. Pashtuns of the Afghan-Pakistan Borderlands


www.cambridge.org


Elisabeth Leake

Frontmatter

More Information


0 250 500 750 1000 km

0 250 500 miles

EAST PAKISTAN

AksaiChin

AFGHANISTAN

S O V I E T U N I O N

I N D I A

C H I N A

T i b e t

NEPAL

BHUTAN

Delhi

Kabul

Peshawar

Dacca

SOVIET

UNION

Karachi

BULGARIA

GREECE

CYPRUS

LEBANON

ISRAEL

JORD

A

N

I R A Q I R A N

SYRIA

T U R K E Y

E G Y P T

S U D A N

LI

BY

A

B l a c k S e a Ca

sp

i an

Se

a

Me d i t e r r a n e a n S e a

Re

d

Se

a

A r a b i a n S e aB a y o f

B e n g a l

Muscat

Riyadh

Cairo

Khartoum

TERR. OFAFARS & ISSAS

ETHIOPIA

S A U D I

A R A B I A

Per s ian Gu l f

BeirutDamascus

AmmanJerusalem

Athens

Ankara

Baghdad

Tehran

Katmandu

Lhasa

Thimphu

WE S T

PA

KI S

TA

N

JUNAGADH &MANAVEDAR

KUWAIT

QATAR

MU

SCA

T

OM

AN

TRUCIAL STATE

S

YEMEN

ADEN PROTECTORATE

Aden

KA

S

HM

I R

Baghdad Pact

IV. Pakistan in the Cold War


www.cambridge.org