Water management in India: By Gita Kavarana

The value of a raindrop

Programme for Oslo University students

New Delhi,

March 2007

1. Growing crisis

In 1950, water availability was very low only in North Africa, and was average or above average in the rest of the world.

< 1 - catastrophically low; 1.1.-2.0 - very low; 2.1-5.0 - low; 5.1-10 - average; 10.1-20 - high; > 20 - very high.

Source: Source: World water resources at the beginning of the 21st century” prepared in the framework of ihp unesco

1. Growing crisis

In 2001, more than 75% of the world population has low water

availability.

< 1 - catastrophically low; 1.1.-2.0 - very low; 2.1-5.0 - low; 5.1-10 - average; 10.1-20 - high; > 20 - very high.

Source: Source: World water resources at the beginning of the 21st century” prepared in the framework of ihp unesco

1. Growing crisis

5177 4732

1140134118202209

0

1000

2000

3000

4000

5000

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1951 1955 1991 2001 2025 2050

Year

wat

er a

vaila

bilit

y C

ubic

met

er

Pop

ulat

ion

(mill

ion)

Population (Million)

Per Capita Water Availability(Cubic Metres)

What has led to this situation?Heavy use of surface water – some rivers have no flow

left in summer season

Heavy use of groundwater without recharging leading to falling water table all over the country

ADD

Pollution of ground and surface waters from urbanisation, industrialisation and agricultural modernisation. Large stretches of almost all rivers polluted

Most rivers in India have hardly any water left in summer

Groundwater depletion in India

Why is recharging so important? While tubewell use is increasing,tank irrigation is declining

How efficient is the present paradigm?

Irrigation efficiency is 36 per cent; I.e, 64 per cent water is lost in transit and due to bad management practices.

Cost recovery is 2 to 3 per cent;

Farmers at the tail end of a canal depends on the mercy of those at the head end to get even life saving irrigation

Problem villages in drinking water supply

Year of Survey Number of Problem Villages identified

Number of villages covered till the next survey

Number of villages not covered before the next survey

1972

150,000 94,000 56,000

1980

231,000 192,000 39,000

1985

161,722 161,652 70

1994

140,975 110,371 30,604

1997

61,747

Polluted river stretches …

But at a huge cost!

1996 2003

Cities are water stressed;Many get water once in 3 days;What we have is fast getting

polluted.Dirty water is the largest killer

of babies.

Current scenario..

Drought is becoming more or less permanent Even in “good” rainfall years, there is water stress. Even after a flood there is a droughtNearly 13% of total land area declared drought prone.

Drought in not only about failure of rainfall

Believe it or not, Cherrapunji which gets 11000 mm rainfall suffers from serious drinking water shortages

In 2003 Kerala received 2000 mm, yet there were farmer suicides

It does not matter how much rain you get,

if you don’t capture it.

2. YET …..

• Nations still pursuing the same policies. Physical infrastructures (dams, pipes/canals) at huge cost often on borrowed funds

• For instance, most state governments have projects in the pipeline which involve bringing water to cities from distant rivers or digging deep wells.

• These are funded by World bank/ADB• India has spent till date Rs. 2,92,767 crore (Planning

commission) on water supply projects. (US $ 65,000 million)

• Can such investments be sustained?

Can such investments be sustained?

• What are the alternatives?

• While developed countries are going in for alternate but costly technologies – desalination, wastewater treatment, fog collection etc

• Technology intensive,expensive

• Can poor countries afford these solutions?

4. Another answer .. To leapfrog

• Another solution exists – does not need huge financial or technological investments, does not damage the environment

• Tapping huge amounts of available precipitation

• Catch water where it falls

• Water wisdom – traditional but can meet modern day water challenges

4. Another answer .. To leapfrog

5. Potential of water harvesting

4 monsoon months

3000

8 remaining months

1000

Total precipitation

4000

Total river flows -1953 (75% of this only in rainy season)

Percolation into soil

2047

Utilisable - less evaporation, flows to sea & other countries

690

Utilisable - less evaporation, soil moisture

396

Total available for irrigation & other uses precipitation

1086

What is lost – evaporation, soil moisture – which can be captured –1700 (approx)

Source: National Commission for Integrated Water Resources Development. All figures in Km3

5. Potential of water harvesting

30,000 tanks measuring 100mx100mx10m= 10 km3 in 300

districts that receives more than 200mm of rainfall (Dr. P.R. Pisharoty, Physical Research Laboratory)

Rainfall Collection efficiency

Evaporation loss

Catchment area

Water stored

(depth)

800 mm 50% 2m 30 X size of tank

10m

200 mm 60% 4m 50Xsize of tank

8m

Total water harvested = 900 km3. Surface area covered = 3% of total land area** Rough estimates

1 ha of land X 100 mm of rainfall = 1 million litres of water

6. Principles of rainwater harvesting

Uses decentralised structures, which reduce cost and losses of delivery. Aids local use and local recharge

Uses diverse technologies – most appropriate for ecological system

Uses local communities as managers as scale is too small for centralised bureaucracies

Uses fiscal incentives to promote rainwater harvesting

7. Diverse technologies

8. Ancient wisdom Dated as far back as 5000 years. Dholavira of the Indus Valley Civilisation was harvesting runoff in the dry Thar desert.

9. Traditional wisdom in the Thar desert

A talab is a local reservoir made out of natural depressions on outcrops of hillocks or rocky formations. Usually, only the slope side of the reservoir or talab was provided with strong parapet walls.

9. Traditional wisdom in the Thar desertRooftop harvesting was common in cities and towns of Rajasthan.Rainwater collected from roofs was taken to underground tanks, called tankas,

built in the courtyard or in the house

9. Traditional wisdom in the Thar desertTanks are different from talabs, in that they are constructed in situ with

impermeable floor and massive masonry stonewalls on all sides.

Jodhpur, Udaipur, Bhuj, Jamnagar, Anjar are some of the cities, which,

till recently were supplied water principally from tanks and lakes

9. Traditional wisdom in the Thar desertStep wells were another way of harvesting rain and providing drinking water in

the arid parts of the country.


Jodhpur: There were over 200water bodies in all,many of them over500 years old. Thecity’s 40-odd talabsin the city still existtoday and many ofthem are over 300years old.Jodhpur was perhapsthe only city in Indiawhere an all out effortwas made to capture

all available rainwater.

9. Traditional wisdom in the Thar desertThe Chittor Fort once housed at least 50,000 people. There were more than 80 water bodies which could hold water that would last the citizens for more than 5 years incase of a siege. Even today, there are 22 water bodies.

Udaipur, known all over the world as the City of Lakes, has a network of lakes, which provided the city with drinking and irrigation water and also provided water for its numerous wells and step wells. Today, this water wealth is facing destruction.

Water bodies in Chittor Fort Water wealth of Udaipur


For irrigation, livestock and

drinking water in rural areas,

there were yet other forms of

water harvesting. Nadis were

village ponds and tobas were

watering holes with grass

around them which pastoralists

used for their livestock. Kundis

are found all over the region,

while kuis or beris were dug

next to tanks to collect their

seepage.

9. Traditional wisdom in the Thar desertThe khadin is used even today in agriculture in the Thar Desert. It involves harvesting rainwater in farmlands and consists of an embankment built across a slope in such a way that rainwater is collected within an agricultural field. Virdas was developed by the nomadic Maldhari tribes who inhabit the arid-saline regions of the Rann of Kutch. The maldharis identify the natural depressions (jheels) from the flow of the monsoon runoff, and then dig small wells (virdas), within the depression, to collect rainwater. The wells lie over the top of the saline layer, with a transition zone of brackish water between. Bushes and trees, planted on the bunds, protect the virdas.

10. Decline of traditional systems

From responsibility to rightBegan with the British – (1) Introduced a taxation system

that impoverished the peasantry (2) Introduced a bureacracy to manage water resources(3) Emphasis on larger irrigation projects like canals.

Less emphasis on minor irrigation like bandharas. Destroyed community ownership as well as community responsibility.

Continued by independent Indian policies – Big is beautiful – water bureaucracy completely took over water management

11. Water and societyAn integral part of the web of life• Only special guests offered water; that too, only one glass;

second glass will be milk• In Jaisalmer, people bathe on a wooden platform; water

collected from underneath is given to cattle • Rajasthan has maximum number of folk songs with

water/clouds as theme

•Agors (catchment) considered sacred. Defilement was prohibited and thus kept clean. •Digging of a tank/silting was considered one of the seven great meritorious acts in a lifetime

11. Water and society

Deep knowledge of water and elements • Diverse systems to suit local ecology,

geology, climate: nadi, talab, johad, bandha, etc. Each a definite system.

• From the name of a particular system,(eg. a nadi) people knew how the water is collected, catchment prepared; embankment constructed, etc.

• Divided the entire Rajasthan into two areas – palar water & wakar water. Palar is rainwater can be stored in underground tankas for up to 3-5 years. Wakar water underground water which has oozed out of earth with minerals etc.

11. Water and societyAstounding diversitySo many kinds of wells: Dugwells: kua owned by

individuals; kohars community wellsStepwells: Baolis for drinking; constructed for

philanthropic purposes; jhalaras not used for drinking. Different in architecture

Sagar ka kua: never run dry; Seer ka kua: underground channel opening into a well.

Deir: water collected in a depression dried up by October; Bier: spread across the land as a huge sheet of water.

Social discipline • Before the onset of monsoon, agor /paytan

(catchment)of tanks would be cleaned by all beneficiaries

• Anga system for rational and equitable distribution. Requirement calculated for each household based on number of humans, cattle and goats.

• Payment for water in terms of voluntary labour to draw out water from its sources

11. Water and society

11. Water and societySocial discipline• Upstream users were not allowed to plant water intensive

crops• Violation of rotational irrigation arrangements were

punishable by fines• Acreage rationing: Every person could hold a certain

amount of lands in irrigable area and others in areas with less water

• Water for water-intensive crops rotated from year to year• Physical policing also done through guards etc.

Sometimes the water manager was from the landless class. Had to do his job well.

11. Water and society Not a free good • No water body was made for the people by any king/

chief/ chieftain/ jagirdar(revenue collector or government representative)

• Water bodies made by the above was only for their personal use

• People had to construct their water systems themselves.• Eg. In Jodhpur, the Ranisar, situated within the fort was

only meant for nobility. People used the Padamsar fed by runoff from the Ranisar. Similarly in Udaipur, the Pichola lake was built by the Banjara gypsies which is used by the public.

12. Rural poverty

In India, nearly 75% of the poor live in rural areas.

Increasingly, these rural poor live on fragile and degraded lands. Drought an increasingly frequent phenomenon.

Growing population in Asia and Africa

Challenge - Management of its natural resource base at increasing levels of productivity

Greater challenge – Also in a manner that is sustainable and equitable

Will require tremendous social discipline, political sagacity and technical ingenuity.

Challenge of the balance

14. Way ahead – create natural wealth

Challenge – Help the poor to get out of their ecological poverty

The poor and the marginalised do not need aid; they need support to help themselves

Challenge – Not just to maintain existing natural capital, but to revive degraded lands

Starting point for biomass regeneration is water

Good water, land and forest management leads to

Creation of sustainable livelihoods and regeneration of the rural economy.

14. Way ahead“A society is known by the water it keeps”1. Starting point for economic development is water. Starting point

for water is land. Start with protecting the catchment. Water harvesting goes hand in hand with watershed management.

2. Water harvesting is not a quick-fix solution. Takes time. First step is to create confidence and awareness in people that water harvesting works.

3. Create institutions at the village level to undertake water harvesting systems – to decide on type of structure, siting, design, cost, who will pay what, how will the water be shared etc. All must participate. Social fencing – rules for protecting catchment, using water, protecting water.

4. Role of government – that of enabler; fiscal incentives; legislations, provide communities with rights over land and water

15. Community experiences

In Gelhar-Choti in Jhabua, Madhya Pradesh, villagers were able to harvest water and irrigate about 91 hectares even though the rainfall was just about half of the usual average. (govt watershed development)

Thunthi-Kankasiya, village in Dahod district of Gujarat, farmers were able to irrigate 135 ha and all 23 wells had enough water even though the rainfall was just 40% of normal(check dam on a seasonal river)

In Raj Samdhiyala village, villagers had built 12 check dams. Farmers were able to sow cotton, wheat, groundnut and vegetables even though rainfall was less than 2/3 of normal.

Many more

16. 1970s: Transformation of Ralegan Siddhi

Ralegan Siddhi, in Ahmednagar district of Maharastra State

Arid land,average annual rainfall ranging from 450mm to 600mm 1975: hardly one acre of irrigated land per family;

Food production was only about 30% of the requirements;

Average annual income was Rs.270 (US $ 6); high level of distress migration; in the clutches of money lenders and private bankers.



1975: Began by constructing storage ponds, reservoirs and gully plugs to catch the rain and moisten the soil.

Very next year after the first check dams were built, the water level in the wells near the barrages started rising.

Soon, government stepped in with financial help and a total of 47 check dams were built in four micro watershed areas

Total water storage capacity is 300 cubic metres approximatelyDiverse methods used - percolation tanks, boulder checks,

brushwood dams, staggered trenches, nullah bundings, check dams etc

Gradually, total watershed development activities were undertakenIncluding modern agricultural methods like drip irrigation



Some 14 water cooperative societies catering water to 600 acres of 157 farmers in Ralegan Siddhi today.

Members decide on system for distribution of water equitably to all

Society determines crops to be sown depending on availability of water

Drinking water is also rationed.Water distributed through water ration cardsOther social disciplining – ban on tree felling; over

grazing; too much importance is not given to milk to prevent over grazing



In 1998 the top 28 per cent of the households in this village had an annual household income of more than Rs. 4,80,000 a year.

The village had a branch office of a major bank with nearly Rs. 3 crore in deposits of villagers

The village today makes use of solar power, biogas, drip irrigation

Took nearly 5 years for first impacts to become visible.

From one of the most destitute villages of India to one of the richest28% of population earn more than Rs. 40,000/month

17. Temple of modern India - JhabuaIn 1994, the government of Madhya Pradesh started a watershed management

programme in the district of Jhabua (now applied to the whole state)to bring economic well-being from environmental regeneration.

Effort to involve the people in land and water management on a scale and depth that no other government has attempted.

Result of political will combined with bureaucratic competence and commitment

Some 22% of Jhabua’s land area was brought under the Rajiv Gandhi Watershed Development Mission, covering 374 villages, to develop 249 micro-watersheds.

Today, the programme is being run in all 48 districts, covering 6253 watersheds in 8692 villages. The programme covers 4.2 million hectares, which is a little more than 1% of India’s total land area. The total investment in the programme for the past ten years has been Rs. 1042 crore , which works

out a little over Rs. 4000/hectare.

17. Temple of modern India - Jhabua

Once a heavily forested area, Jhabua lost its natural wealth over the last 50 years.

More than 30% of its forest lands stood without any tree cover.

The district was dotted with rock-exposed hillocks.

This forest degradation meant that the impact was felt most by the tribals who form 83% of the population.


What was done

As a first step to arrest the water falling on the slopes, small tanks were built on the slopes to hold the water.

Some 143 tanks were built initially

Land in the watershed was protected

Pasture improvement through planting pasture grasses

Community afforestation was undertaken

Seed banks were set up



How was it done Multi-layered institutional structure set upAt the state level was the Chief minister, chief secretary

and the Mission in chargeAt the district level was the district collector, CEP of zilla

panchayat, advisory committee and technical committee

At the watershed level was the project implementation officer (govt or NGO)

At the village level was the village watershed committee, user groups, self-help groups and womens’ groups

17. Temple of modern India - JhabuaHow was it doneOnce the plans prepared by the watershed committee are

approved, the govt releases 75% of the total budget to the committee

Every fortnight the watershed committee together with the villagers decide on the expenditures

The watershed committee maintains two accounts – one for expenditures and 10% of the project money is set aside as a fixed deposit. This is meant for post project maintenance & repairs

When villagers volunteer labour a part of the wages is also set aside in this account.

The district or zilla parishads also keep some money for their expenditures


Impacts

Increase in groundwater levels

Reduction in wasteland area up to 66% in 11 micro watersheds

2 million trees regenerated

Cropped area increased by 7%

Food availability increased from 1 month to 4 months

313 grain banks established

Increase in grass up to 5-6 times



Challenge of wealth-wasteCities and industries growing. Need water.

Increasing stress on rural water.

Cities are sourcing their water from further and further away.

Use clean water and discharge polluted water. Adding to water stress.

Need to reinvent the water paradigm for urban India. Desperately.

The water-sewage connection

The conventional way:

Bring water into the city – storage, diversion, pipe, pump, treat – from further and further away.

Flush and carry the waste out of the city – pipe, pump, divert, treat – further and further away.

Cities search for water

Chennai: 235 km (Veeranam lake) and now planning to go farther 300 Km (Veeranam extension project).

Bangalore: 95 km (Cauvery) pumping 1000 m elevation.

Delhi: from Tehri dam (450 to 500 km).

Chennai

Veeranam lake

Map of Tamil Nadu

Manjira dam

Hyderabad

Nagurjuna

105 km

100 km

Himayat Sagar

Osman Sagar

Vaitarna cum Tansa

90 km

105 km

Mumbai

Bhatsa

Narmada river

70 km

30 km

INDORE

INDORE

YASHWANT SAGAR

Indi

ra G

andh

i can

al

204 km

Rajivgandhi lift canal

Jodhpur

JODHPUR

Bangalore..

Dipping watertable

Cities depend on groundwater: but do not recharge.

Urban lakes are sponges of cities. To hold water and recharge groundwater.

But neglected. Dirty. Dead. Destroyed for land. No land for water.

Inefficiencies are high

Huge distribution losses in water supply – between 20-50 per cent.

Increased pollution in source water adds to cost of treatment.

Cost recovery is difficult because of the huge distribution losses and inequity in supply.

Cannot invest in efficiencies and clean water for all.

3% population

Water costs are high. Distribution costs high. Cannot be recovered. Subsidy to some. Water inequity in Delhi.

DELHI

Per capita availability 211 lpcd

2011 Master plan targets 363 lpcd

Urban water norms need reform

Need answers that are different. Less wasteful.

More water means more sewage.

No estimation of how much we produce, how much we treat, how we dispose..

We do not discuss human excreta and its disposal. That is an untouchable subject.

Flush and forget mindset. Drains will carry it.

Somebody will treat it. Somebody will build sewage treatment plant. Clean it. Dispose it.

As a result of this our rivers polluted..waterbodies polluted..

Cost of system is high. Cannot pay. Cannot subsidise all.

This is the political economy of defecation.

The rich use water. Are connected to sewage system. Waste is collected. Even treated.

But they cannot pay for full costs..

Subsidy to the rich to excrete in convenience. River action programmes. All sewage treatment

plants built in river cleaning programmes as grants/loans/public investment.

Even when capital cost paid. No money to run. Governments subsidises again.

Massive subsidy to sewered populations. Polluters never pay

Flush toilets that do not destroy the country’s hydrological systems;

Flush toilets that do not destroy the world’s nitrogen cycle;

Flush toilets that are hygienic and equitous.Make sewage everybody’s businessDecentralised sewage management systemsSmall, alternative systems that can be operated

in each buildingCSE has its own sewage treatment system

Sewage excreta: biggest challenge for modern India

Challenge for science: national toilet mission