Research

RESEARCH METHODS

What is research?

Meaning of Research

• It is conceptualized depending on

perspectives

-Simply research is a search for knowledge

-A careful inquiry for new facts intending to -A careful inquiry for new facts intending to

obtain answers of particular questions

about a phenomena or events through the

application of scientific procedures.

Research means…

• Kothari(2004) holds that Research is a systematic and scientific search for information on specific topic.

• He also views as an art of searching information involving procedures.information involving procedures.

Educational research; it's the application of scientific research methods and processes and procedures in solving educational problems in educational field.

Educational research cont..

• Gall et al(2005)define educational research as a systematic collection and analysis of data in order to get valid description & generalization interventions in education.

Generally, Research is the way of explaining Generally, Research is the way of explaining and predicting a phenomena which is helpful to make changes and rearrangements.

Character… of Research1. Research is systematic –has to follow structured

rules and principles/procedures

2. Research is logical-it employs a system that

needs reasoning i.e.. why this and not that?

3. It is empirical-it relies on empirical evidence 3. It is empirical-it relies on empirical evidence

may be after observation. e.g.. Observed data

4. Research demands accuracy and description-

precise and accurate data are needed.

Characteristics cont..

5.Research is replicable/transferable-can be repeated through being done by other people or other places

i.e.. It can be recollected/replicated by reviewing other research findings.other research findings.

6.Research is directed towards the solution, that is, done in order to answer questions or finding the relationship between variables.

Characteristics cont…

7.Research is generative-that is, it generates

other researches for other people to do.

8.Emphasizes on making generalization,

developing principles and establishment of developing principles and establishment of

theories.

9.Research forecast future events-predicts

future occasions

Obj/purpose of research

• General purpose,

To find answers to hidden questions which are not yet known to solve problems.

� General objectives;General objectives;

1.To gain deeper understanding of a phenomena

2.Enables to achieve new insights

3.Provides help to describe features of an individual e.g.. accurate x-cs of a person

objectives cont…

4.To determine the frequency with which something is happening, to what extent the phenomena occurs.

5.To test hypothesis to obtain casual 5.To test hypothesis to obtain casual relationship of a phenomena.

Gall et al(2005)objectives

6.To achieve interventions of various programs.

Significance of research (Rationale)

1. To have basic knowledge about research

2. It is part of developing careers i.e. Doctors,

teachers, counselors etc wishing to be consultants

3. Research inculcates us with the ability to evaluate 3. Research inculcates us with the ability to evaluate

other researches or findings and use the info.

Collected to solve existing problems.

4. Enables us to make intellectual decisions in solving

existing problems in the society.

Significance cont…5.It instills thinking-makes one to reason and

promote logical thinking (inspires thinking)

6.Is a basis for planning solution on social problems.eg.Budgeting etc

7.Used for policy making and decisions by policy makers

7.Used for policy making and decisions by policy makers

8.Generates new ideas, facts and knowledge

9.May develop new theories and principles which guides day 2day life styles

Types of Research

• There are different ways of classifying

research

a) Basing on purpose

b) Basing on nature

c) Basing on time

d) Basing on Approach

Basing on purpose

I. Basic/ pure/ fundermental research-its purpose is to formulate theories/make contribution to existing body of knowledgeexisting body of knowledge

II. Applied research-An immediate and practical solution applied to solve the problem.

NB: Basic and Applied types are the primary research types

Basing on Approach I. Quantitative research-deals with

quantification of information. In terms of numbers and it uses objective measurement & numerical measurement.

II. Qualitative research-uses words to explain II. Qualitative research-uses words to explain the phenomena i.e.. Deals with hypothesizing unlike quantitative by which hypothesis is generated at the end.

-It doesn't use numerical measurement but description

Quantitative categories

• Experimental quantitative-involves

control of variables

• Non-experimental quantitative-there is • Non-experimental quantitative-there is

no control of variables, relation ship is

maintained

Basing on natureI. Descriptive research-descriptions

II. Analytical research-analysis

Basing on time

I. Cross-sectional research-looks variables once within a short period of

I. Cross-sectional research-looks variables once within a short period of time.

II. Longitudinal research-carried over a long period of time covers a wider range of time

Types of research

• Other types of researchI. Empirical research- use evidences for data

interpretation

II. Conceptual research-concerns with abstract theories & concepts mostly used by

II. Conceptual research-concerns with abstract theories & concepts mostly used by philosophers

-used by experienced researchers.

III Field searching research-A researcher go to field /area –collect information to a study area.

Other type cont…IV. Laboratory research –conducted in the

laboratory it involve control of variables e.g. specimen.

V .Simulation research-done when the respondents/informants you observe consider ethical to perform itrespondents/informants you observe consider ethical to perform it

VI. Clinical /diagnostic research-conducted for diagnostic purposes knowing the casual relationship of the existing phenomenon

Variables• Express the constructs on which a person

wishes to find the relationship between them.

• Variable is any thing which is subjected to change –decreasing or increasingchange –decreasing or increasing

• Note -any thing that cant be subjected to change is not a variable

• A variable is any thing which is varied example age of students, different courses, rate of dropout, performance curve etc.

Variables cont…• For example, students are of the same age but

they have different characteristics

Examples of variables>weight, height, distance, teachers qualification-Degree, diploma, certificate etc.

Classification of variablesClassification of variables

I (a) Categorical variables-are those which its subjects are classified into groups.

e.g.. A-level classes, Academic staff, School heads etc.

Classification cont…

b) Continuous variables-are those which the attributes have infinite number of ranges.

-Have wide number of ranges e.g.. Distance when infinite

II a) Independent variables-are those which II a) Independent variables-are those which affect/influence another variables) e.g.. height of a child is influenced by his/her age.

-Hence, age is an independent variable, influences height

Classification cont…

b) Dependent variables-are kinds of variables in

which its effects shown depends depend on an

independent variables

-Those which are influenced by other variables

eg. The height of a child is influenced by the age

of that child

Hence, height is a dependent variable in research.

RESEARCH PROCESS

• Activities involved in research process differ

in accordance with the field or location.

Sometimes may differ incase of the kind of

researchresearch

-Quantitative

-Qualitative

Processes

1.Identification of research problem

Define a research problem planned or intended to be researched in a more detail and clearly.

-It should be a question to answer or a statement

-Should be from unknown aspects-Should be from unknown aspects

2.Literature Review

Involves reading previous research studies done by others pertaining the same topic/problem

-It help a new researcher to find skills of attempting such problem but in different ways.

Research process cont..

3.Formulation of hypothesis

A tentative answers upon the selected problem. The assumptions, statement or expectation.

i) Null hypothesis-a statement which i) Null hypothesis-a statement which negates the phenomenon

ii) Alternative hypothesis-this positive form of statement of a problem

Process….

4. Identification of Variables

-Identifying variables that can be used in research

process

-The variables should be labeled after being identified -The variables should be labeled after being identified

i.e.. independent/dependent

5.Designing research study-conceptually, designing a

research structure which a researcher will follow (a

way) in conducting his/her research. ie design data

collection techniques

Research process cont..

-Selection of the design (way) to follow depends on the nature of the research eg. Available resources like money, participants/ respondents, time and knowledge of a researcher like computer skills.

6.Selection of research methods6.Selection of research methods

-These are data collection and analysis methods

ie.Questionaire, observation, interview, focus group discussion

-Nature of research determines the selection of research method.

Process cont..

7.Development of research instruments

-Are questions in which a researcher will ask the respondents which will assist him or her to obtain

appropriate information.

8.Data collection8.Data collection

-At field, a researcher is to collect information using different data collection methods. Though sometimes a researcher may post questionnaires to the field without going there.

Process cont..

9.Interpretation and analysis of information

-Careful analysis and interpretation of info. according to

the methods used.

-It is so, in order to get meaningful info. about research -It is so, in order to get meaningful info. about research

conducted.

10.Report writing-the last and most important stage.

A research writes a report ready to be published for

knowledge acquisition.

Report writing….

-A report involves;

• procedures followed in you research

• Writings in past form and

• Put forward the research findings/information in the • Put forward the research findings/information in the

way that others may easily access.

Note. Research proposal is written in future

tenses-what is expected before research has

been done.

RESEARCH PROBLEM

Kothari(2004) defines research problem as difficult which a researcher experiences in the context of theoretical or practical situational and need to find

solution.

-Research problem doesn't exist in the vacuum there -Research problem doesn't exist in the vacuum there should be people facing that problem and objectives that at end, one needs to attain those objectives.

Characteristics of research problem

• Should be manageable- in terms of time and money

• Should be researchable

• Should be of interest to the researcher

• Should seek to bring originality• Should seek to bring originality

Sources of Research problem

� Experience-experience of a difficult by a person may

be a source of a research problem and the problem

needs solutions. Hence a research study is employed.

Eg. Experience from delay of Loans to higher education Eg. Experience from delay of Loans to higher education

students.

� Theory-one may draw research problem from

assumptions. E.g. Child development theory of

Bandura>As child interacts with environment his/her

growth is affected

Sources cont…

� Literature review-reviewing what has been done by other researchers of the same problem, research problem can be drawn from that literary work by raising queries/doubts.

� Practical/actual situation.� Policy change.� Curriculum development.� Curriculum development.� Technological advancements.� Authority advise from expertiseHow to select Research problem?>Choose a particular field of experience>Choose field of your interest

>Field selected should be familiar to a prospective researcher.

Selecting research problem….

>Should logically be selected-reasoning to be part of it.

>Narrow the selected problem to get very specific problems

>Should be researchable-should access easily the information from participants (respondents)information from participants (respondents)

i.e.. Sexual practices info can't be easily obtained, you should select researchable problem

Selection of r. problem…

>Should be ethically appropriate-ethics is to be considered ie. Methods of interviewing participants should be ethical, unethical questions should end to invalid info.

>Should be suitable to the researcher in terms of >Should be suitable to the researcher in terms of knowledge

>Should add knowledge or solve problems

>Should open up to new research-other area of searching

Format of research proposal

Mainly contains 3 main chapters

1.Chapter I-Introduction

2.Chapter II-Literature Review

3.Chpter III-Methodology

�Before chapter I there is-�Before chapter I there is-

>Preliminary information-Title of the topic

-Name

-Course/program

-Table of content(1pg)

RESEARCH PROPOSAL

• Is a description or plan to be followed in carrying out a proposed study.

Rationale/purpose/why research proposal?

@Helps the researcher to think of important issues about the study eg. How to collect data & where necessary info is available.about the study eg. How to collect data & where necessary info is available.

@Helps the researcher to evaluate the study by looking at the difficulties which are likely to be involved.

@Provides a guide/plan of general strategies to be undertaken-directs a researcher where to go

Research proposal….

�After chapter III there is-

>References-list of books used

>Appendices/appendix-includes sample

of research instruments that you will use

eg. Questionnaire, intervieweg. Questionnaire, interview

In preliminary information:-

TITLE of the study should indicate major independent & dependent variables.

-May include the population on which the study will be undertaken

Preliminary info cont…

-Title should be brief preferably less than 19 words

Example of a title

1.“The influence of personality on academic

performance among the second year diploma performance among the second year diploma

students at Mpuguso teachers college”

i) Personality-independent variable

ii) Academic performance-dependent variable

Title

• Includes population eg.second year diploma

students

2.Gender & academic performance in LG courses

at UDOMat UDOM

-Gender>independent variable

-Performance in LG courses-dependent

variable

CHAPTER I/INTRODUCTION

(Before all prepare an abstract)

Organization of chapter I

-Contains a number of items/element including;

1.Background to the problem-info acquired for1.Background to the problem-info acquired for

understanding the problem. Provide the context of

the study by answering the question `why should the

study choose this problem?

-should start from broad to specific

Chapter I

In background-the research should try to convince the

experts have an argument to the problem.

-Expected to review other works to reveal what is

known eg. What is the subject?

what are the weaknesses of the what are the weaknesses of the

current?

Questions included;

i) What current & previous studies have done?

Questions cont…

ii) What is the available info on the magnitude nature &

causes of the problem?

iii) What are present gaps in knowledge?

iv) What makes that problem important for studying?iv) What makes that problem important for studying?

v) Why not been talked yet?

vi) What do you intend to do to fill the gaps/solve the

problems

vii) What do you intend to do to bring new in the

problem?

Chapter I cont..

2.Statement of the problem- An attempt whichfocus on the study by providing direction on the problem

-can be declarative statement or question, usually need a lot of words (relatively 19-20 words) and state why a lot of words (relatively 19-20 words) and state why is the proposed study?

3.Purpose of the study-A single statement or

paragraph which explains what the study intends to accomplish.

Chapter I cont…

>Purpose of the study should specify variables that a

research intends to focus on

Eg.1.The purpose of the study is to examine the effect

of study hours on the memory of the students.of study hours on the memory of the students.

2.The purpose of the study is to discover the

relationship between the timing of the lesson & the

students attendance to the lecture/lesson.

Chapter I

4.Objectives of the study-are specific statements which come from the purpose.

-They are indicators of what a researcher is going to do.

Examples of objectives:

-To show how the students attendance to lectures differ according to the lecture hours

-To examine the relationship between sex and attendance of lecture in different hours

Chapter I cont…

5. Hypotheses-likely outcome/expectation. Are simply stated and can either be NULL or ALTERNATIVE=(Ho or Ha) respectively.

-Null hypothesis is denying the phenomenon

E.g. “There is no relationship between lecture hour & E.g. “There is no relationship between lecture hour & the attendance of students in lectures”

-Alternative hypothesis is a positive statement

Eg.“There is relationship between study hours and memory of students”

Chapter I cont…

-Question can also be used to help a researcher

E.g.Is there a significant difference between attendance of male students and those of female students in different lectures.

6. Significance of the study-answers number of 6. Significance of the study-answers number of questions including;

-Why is the study important?

-To whom is it important?

-What benefit will be brought when the study is conducted? (justify materials, time, money)

Chapter I

7.Limitations of the study-they could be money,

time, methodological weaknesses.

-Which practical & theoretical drawbacks are?

E.g.. Is the topic chosen could be achieved to the time E.g.. Is the topic chosen could be achieved to the time

scheduled?

CHAPTER II

LITERATURE REVIEW• Literature Review starts from the beginning and

through out the research.

-Research starts in the library and ends in the library.

Literature Review is;Literature Review is;

1.Locating literature in a variety of sources, reading it

carefully and thoroughly, evaluating the content,

breaking down the content into things and organizing

it along the scenes of the study.

Literature Review cont…

2.The systematic identification & analysis of documents

containing info related to the study.

Features of Literature Review

>Should point how the problem of the study I related >Should point how the problem of the study I related

to previous research findings.

>Should demonstrate how the approach of the study is

likely to differ from others.

>Should justify the need for the study esp. if similar

study has been done before on a particular area

Literature Review features cont…

-look on the aim and method of the study to justify the need to research for a similar study before done before.

>Should find out methodological errors and any oppositions among various findingsoppositions among various findings

-should show discrepancy of the different findings of the similar study.

>Should start with broad ideas and narrow them down to specific ideas

i.e. World issues to nation/institution level

Literature review features cont…

>Should not be list mere of research- not to list but give an argument of your study

-should be complete

>Should be critical- should see if the result is objective or subjective, were it contain facts etc.or subjective, were it contain facts etc.

-See what is lacking, what is not appropriate?

-was a researcher influenced by his political,

regional, religion atmosphere?

Literature review features cont…

>Should only concern itself with the variables of the study-primarily to concern with the areas a researcher intends to deal with.

Sources/documents of Literature review;

-Gvt documents e.g.. Edn & Training policy 1995-Gvt documents e.g.. Edn & Training policy 1995

-Dissertation & thesis

-Books, journals, magazines, articles, newspaper,

-Dictionaries, encyclopedia, Gvt BEST (Basic Edn Stat.) and Conference papers.

Best/authentic source of L. Review

-Is the author/institution known & respected to the field?

-Is the reference made to other work in this field?

-Is there a bias to this piece of info that affect the way that it has presented?that it has presented?

>political, social, economic biases

-Does the info seem objective?

-Is there any motive behind/underlying agenda/propaganda?

-How current is the information?

Why literature Review/purpose of

L.R• To gain knowledge in subject area

• To find out where literature is fit-finding gap in

knowledge

• Gaining feedback info in order to rethink and focus a • Gaining feedback info in order to rethink and focus a

research problem.

• To discover how others have researched the chosen

topic area.-methods used, hypothesis made

• To justify why & how you have done the research in

the way you have done.

Purpose of L.R

• To have a body of information to compare

your research findings.

-to compare your results with the findings of

other researches.other researches.

Reflection

Think of your title and then write two pages of

Literature review (how can it look like?)

CHAPTER III

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY (How to plan for)

1.Research design

2.Study population

3.Sampling strategy and sample size3.Sampling strategy and sample size

4.Area of study and its characteristics

5.Data collection techniques

6.Validity and Reliability

7.Ethical issues

8.Data analysis plan

1.Research Design

• Is your plan that will show the specific sources and

type of information relevant to your research

problem.

• Is your plan that shows the approach to be used for Is your plan that shows the approach to be used for

data collection and analysis

• Sometime your design gives a clue of time frame and

cost of the study.

Research Design cont…

• There are so many Research Designs-but consider these you can practice

a) Experimental research design

b) Descriptive research design

c) Explanatory research designc) Explanatory research design

d) Exploration research design

e) Cross-sectional design

f) Longitudinal design

Research design..

• Things to consider when selecting research design

i. What is the study about?

ii. Why is the study being conducted?

iii. Where will the research be carried out?iii. Where will the research be carried out?

iv. What type of data is required?

v. Where can the required data be obtained?

Research design cont..

vi. What period of time will the study include?5yrs?

Vii What will be the sample design?

viii.What data collection techniques will be used?

ix. How will the data collected be analyzed?

x. What style will the research report be prepared and

presented?

Research design..

• Good research design meet these criteria:

� The design is flexible-considers many aspects

�Appropriate for the study

� Efficient-yield what is required� Efficient-yield what is required

� Economical-takes less time and money

�Minimizes bias & maximizes reliability of data collection

NB. Not one design fits all kinds of studies

2.Study population

• What is population?

Population is the group that you will generalize

your results of the research (theoretical population)

Sometimes population can be something other than Sometimes population can be something other than

group of people, such as temperature, automobiles

produced by a given company,etc

2.Study population cont..

• But sometimes you might find difficulty in getting the

list of your population E.g. Street children in

Tanzania. It's hard to get their names in each urban

center.

• Hence the alternative is Accessible population

From this example the accessible population might

be street children in Dodoma municipality aged 5-18

years

Study population cont…

• Sampling Frame-this is the list of the accessible

population from which you will draw your sample.

From the example of street children of Dodoma

municipal, those you managed to reach and register municipal, those you managed to reach and register

is your Sample frame

However, it is not easy to study all respondents in the

sample frame. You need a sample

3. SAMPLE

• What is a sample?

Sample is a subset of the population

Sample is the small group of people you select to be in

your studyyour study

The reason you sample is to get an estimate for the

population from which you sampled

Who do you want to

generate to? Theoretical

population

What population The study population

Can u get access to?

How can u get The sampling frame

access to them?

Who is in your study?

The sample

Sampling techniques

Probability samples Non probability samples

-where the probability of Reflect an unknown proba

selecting each respondent bility of selection.

is known.

1.Simple random 1.Convenience sampling1.Simple random 1.Convenience sampling

2.Systematic sampling 2.Quota sampling

3.Stratified random s.. 3.Dimensional sampling

4.Cluster/area sampling 4.Purposive sampling

5.Snowball sampling

6.Mixed sampling design

a) Simple random sampling

• Simple random sample each person in the

population has an equal chance of being chosen for

the sample study. Criteria:

1.No one is listed more than once, nobody is excluded1.No one is listed more than once, nobody is excluded

2.Sampling without replacement ie.

1/100;1/50(selection is equal at any given stage of

sampling

3.Use table of random numbers, flip of coin, lottery or

spin of roulette wheel.

1 26 51 76 1 26 51 76 Determine the number of unitsDetermine the number of units2 27 52 77 2 27 52 77 N=100N=1003 28 53 78 3 28 53 78 Determine the sample size (N)Determine the sample size (N)4 29 54 79 4 29 54 79 Want n=20Want n=205 30 55 80 5 30 55 80 The interval size is K=N/nThe interval size is K=N/n6 6 31 56 81 31 56 81 100/20=5 K=5100/20=5 K=57 32 57 82 7 32 57 82 Select a random integer from 1 to KSelect a random integer from 1 to K8 33 58 83 8 33 58 83 chose 4chose 49 34 59 849 34 59 84

10 35 60 85 10 35 60 85 select every k th unitselect every k th unit10 35 60 85 10 35 60 85 select every k th unitselect every k th unit11 36 61 86 11 36 61 86 12 37 62 8712 37 62 8713 38 63 8813 38 63 8814 39 64 8914 39 64 8915 40 65 90 15 40 65 90 16 41 66 9116 41 66 9117 42 67 92 17 42 67 92 18 43 68 9318 43 68 9319 44 69 94 19 44 69 94 20 45 70 95 20 45 70 95 21 46 71 9621 46 71 9622 47 72 9722 47 72 9723 48 73 9823 48 73 9824 49 74 9924 49 74 99

b) Stratified random sampling• You subdivide the population into smaller homogeneous

groups in order to get a more accurate representation of

the population.

DistrictDistrict MaleMale FemaleFemale TotalTotal

• The 4 groups(20, 30, 25, 15) are strata. Once the 4

groups have been formed, a simple random sample is

taken within each group.

Each strata represent the population

Moshi urbanMoshi urban 2020 3030 5050

Moshi RuralMoshi Rural 2525 1515 4040

TotalTotal 4545 4545 90 90

Stratified random sampling

List of Clients

AsiansAfrican-America

strataHispanic –American

C) Cluster/ Area Sampling

Cluster sampling is done when:

1. The study population is infinite

2. List of members is not available

3. Geographical distribution is widely scattered e.g. 3. Geographical distribution is widely scattered e.g.

survey of all nomads in Tanzania. So

1st randomly sample 20 districts with nomads

2nd List all areas nomads were found, randomly pick 5

3rd Random sample of 500 nomads could be drawn

Non probability sample

a) Convenience sampling- its like a study for secondary school students in Dodoma municipal, you just pick Ng`ong`ona secondary school, its closer and easy to access

b) Quota sampling-its like stratified sampling where you b) Quota sampling-its like stratified sampling where you form strata easy to access

c) Purposive sampling its between convenience and quota-where the nearest & available people are studied

Non probability sample cont…

d) Snowball sampling

1st a person with best criteria is identified &

interviewed

2nd-The 1st person identify other who qualify to be 2 -The 1 person identify other who qualify to be

included

3rd –the 2nd person calls in the 3rd person & it continue

until you have enough sample size.

Sample size

What is the minimum adequate sample size?

It depends on both the nature of the population and the purpose of the study

An ideal study would have a sample large enough to represent the population so generalization may represent the population so generalization may occur, yet small enough to save time, money and complexity of data analysis.

Consideration of Sample

1.The larger the sample, the larger the likelihood of representation of the population.

Consideration of sample size cont…

2. The greater the heterogeneity, the larger the

necessity for a larger sample

3. If there is no heterogeneity (homogeneity) even a

sample of ONE would suffice.sample of ONE would suffice.

Sample size

How to calculate sample size

n= (σ12 +σ22) (Z1-α/2+Z1-β)

Δ2

Sample size cont…

Where by, n=sample size, ∆=µ1-µ2 for the mean difference of representative groups; σ1and σ2 are respective group variances, respectively. 1.96 is the Z-score at 95% confidence interval.

Sampling ErrorSampling Error

Sampling error is the degree in which the sample means of repeatedly drawn from random samples differ from one another; and from the population mean.

E.g.. A researcher select 50 sec school students from-

Sampling error

the population of all students in Dodoma municipal. The average marks of each student will not be the same, although most of them will cluster around population average.

Some will be relatively high/low by comparison.Some will be relatively high/low by comparison.

This variation in sample means is a result of sampling error, its not a mistake in the sampling process but rather an inevitable variation when a number of randomly selected sample means (marks) are compared.

4.Area of study and its characteristics

• Find a map that shows where your study will be

conducted

• Explain the main characteristics of the respondents

e.g.. The economy, social-economical activities and e.g.. The economy, social-economical activities and

cultural values that differ significantly with other

people

• Why the area and specific group was chosen

• What is so unique?

5. Data collection techniques

Quantitative study Qualitative study

1.Questionaires 1. Observation

2.Rating scale 2. Participants

3.Test scores observation 3.Document study3.Test scores observation 3.Document study

4.Computers

5.Indexes

6.Inventories

�QUESTIONAIRE

Strength Weakness1.Questionaire can be 1.Don`t have luxury of lengthAdministered in terms of 2.Can't use many items to tap interview or self admini- person's evaluation of target, stered measure. event, objective of fatigue

2.It has capacity to use 3. Its expensive eg.national survey2.It has capacity to use 3. Its expensive eg.national surveyboth open-ended andclose-ended questions.

TYPES OF QUESTIONAIRES

1.open-ended questions-these tap persons feelings with greater fidelity/correctness. E.g., What is your favorite meal?

However, it's expensive in terms of developing methods of analysis of the free items generated.of analysis of the free items generated.

2.Close-ended questions-you force the respondents to choose among limited set of response options e.g. What is your favorite meal among pasta, rice or banana stew?

Ordering questionnaires

• Question ordering-It is important to establish rapport to help ensure the quality of the interaction, truthfulness and completeness of the answers that respondent provide.

• Unfortunately, the questions are posed by a more/less anonymous researcher, with little attempt to build relationship with researcher or are on sheet of paper with short introduction of purpose.

Ordering questionnaires cont…

1.The least threatening items be presented first.

eg. Name of your school, how old are you? Which

class? Which tribe? How many brothers/sisters?

2. The respondent become comfortable with the 2. The respondent become comfortable with the

research& some what committed by virtue of

answering a number of questions

3. Then ask more personal or threatening questions

Ordering questions

E.g. .A study on adolescent drug use, it is common that

non threatening queries be presented before items

assessing use of illegal substances are posed.

E.g.. Likewise a study assessing adolescent sexual

behaviorbehavior

Drop-out & no-opinion Response

Loosing a respondent is something we want to avoid

Whether the respondent's loss is due to refusal to

initiate the questionnaire or to complete it once it initiate the questionnaire or to complete it once it

began, the loss is a threat to the generalizability of

any research study.


Some drop-outs are caused by the researcher.

E.g. When you allow respondent to hold a“ no opinion”

Question: Have you ever contracted STDs?

While others allow for a neutral position

Question: Condoms are expensive

YESYES NONO DON`T KNOWDON`T KNOW

Strongly Strongly agreeagree

AgreeAgree NeutralNeutral DisagreDisagreee

Strongly Strongly disagreedisagree


Yet other researchers do not allow “middle of the road

”by forcing the respondents to take a stand

Answers to their question will require YES/NO or

Agree/disagreeAgree/disagree

Studies have shown that there pros and cons for such

no-opinion response .

Most respondent will prefer no-opinion (don't know)

option and such altitude encourage respondents to

maintain interest in the question.


As such neutral responses are difficult to infer

Advantages of having a middle option outweigh the Advantages of having a middle option outweigh the

negative possibilities. However have a clear

understanding of what neutral or no-response felling

about an item means.

�RATING SCALE

Construction of rating scale:

These are formalized versions of questionnaires

designed to measure specific attitude, value or

personality disposition.personality disposition.

E.g. Renesis Likert scale (1932), Louis Thurstone`s

scale(1927)

Renesis Likert scale(1932)ItemItem 11 22 33 44 55

I would use condom if one is I would use condom if one is availableavailable

strongly strongly agreeagree

agreeagree NeutralNeutral disagreedisagree Strongly Strongly disagreedisagree

Condoms are not easily Condoms are not easily availableavailable

Strongly Strongly agreeagree NeutralNeutral disagreedisagree Strongly Strongly disagreedisagree

Condoms are not necessarily Condoms are not necessarily strongly strongly agreeagree

agreeagree NeutralNeutral disagreedisagree Strongly Strongly disagreedisagreeWhen you plan to marry the When you plan to marry the

partnerpartneragreeagree disagreedisagree

I would be embarrassed to I would be embarrassed to buy a condombuy a condom



I am prepared to be tested I am prepared to be tested HIVHIV



Likert scale

• Items are presented in multiple choice format

• Respondents will pick one out of 5 choices, for a +ve

wording like: The TTU has been a +ve force to change

teachers` lifeteachers` life

+1 strongly agree to +5 strongly disagree

For a -ve wording like: The TTU has had a –ve effects on

teachers` life

+5 strongly agree to +1 strongly disagree

Likert scale

• Likert scale proves more efficient in terms of time,

resources expenditure, and effective in developing

scale of high reliability, internal consistency and

temporal stability.

Purpose of Observation

• Three purposes of Observation

1.To provide description of behavior

2. To record situational behavior

3. To study a topic that leads to this method3. To study a topic that leads to this method

a) By providing description of behavior patterns under real and accurate circumstances

b) Behavior can be recorded as it actually occur

4. This is the only method for studying infants, toddlers, people with terminal cancer who can't be interviewed or given questionnaires to complete.

Louis Thurstone`s scale

Thurstone scale.

1st step generate many potential items

2nd step judges are asked to rate their favorability of the

items of interest (the government)items of interest (the government)

3rd, judges independently estimate the degree of

favorability and find the mean for each item

4th the researcher determine the means and SD

5th The 15-25 items with higher rate are included in the

study. Higher values represent more –ve attitude

Louis Thurstone`s scaleAttitudes towards government

ItemItem##

ItemItem Scale Scale valuevalue

11 I think the teaching of the government is too superficialI think the teaching of the government is too superficial 8.38.3

22 I feel the government is petty always quarreling over matter of no I feel the government is petty always quarreling over matter of no significancesignificance

8.68.6significancesignificance

33 I respect any member's political party affiliation & beliefI respect any member's political party affiliation & belief 9.19.1

44 The government represent shallowness, hypocrisy, prejudiceThe government represent shallowness, hypocrisy, prejudice 10.410.4

55 I think the country would be better if multiparty system is closedI think the country would be better if multiparty system is closed 10.510.5

66 I think the organized political party is a parasite of the governmentI think the organized political party is a parasite of the government 10.710.7

77 I regard the government as staticI regard the government as static 11.011.0

�Observation method

Observation methods is a scientific method if carried

under proper circumstances.

Criteria:

1.Must serve the research purpose1.Must serve the research purpose

2.Be planned systematically

3.Be recorded systematically

4.Be subject to checks and controls on validity &

reliability

Values of observation

• The study is conducted in naturalistic environment i.e.

manipulation or controls

• Its discovery approach carried out in the field where

the researcher understand better the context within

which the behavior occurwhich the behavior occur

• It enables the respondents to understand the aims of

the study through interaction with researcher

• The first-hand experience enable the researcher to use

inductive approach

Values of observation cont..

• The researcher can observe behaviors that are routine to those in the study interest

• The researcher can learn behavior that can not be revealed in an interview or questionnaire

• The researcher is able to present a comprehensive • The researcher is able to present a comprehensive view of the behavior because s/he can move beyond the perceptions of the respondents

• The researcher use his/her knowledge, experience

In terms of feelings, reflections, introspection

Methods of Observation

Two methods:

1.Unstructured method of observation-the

researcher is involved as participant observer,

filming, videotaping an occurrence

2.Structured method-the researcher select activities 2.Structured method-the researcher select activities

to be observed before they occur and plan a

systematic recording of the observations (duration,

continuous, frequency count & interval)

NB; Prepare observation form to record each time

Methods of Observation

Observation form for staff meeting

Each time a H/teacher asks a question, place a check

next to one of the following categories that best

describes the questiondescribes the question

Qns Frequency Total

a. Asks personnel for direct input xxx 3

b. Asks personnel to answer specific qns xxxx 4

c. Asks for general questions xxxxx 5

d. Other xxxxxxx 7

Ethnomethodology

Ethnomethodology-an organizational study of a

person's knowledge of his/her affairs, enterprises

Advantage of Ethnomethodology

1.It study both verbal & nonverbal behavior1.It study both verbal & nonverbal behavior

2. Its longitudinal because it is ongoing & changes of

behavior can be viewed over time

3. It gives insight onto what & people think about

common place activities & behaviors why

Ethnometh……..

• Disadvantages

1.It investigate the process of how behavior occur

rather than the product of that occurrence

2.You can not investigate large scale studies but smaller 2.You can not investigate large scale studies but smaller

investigations

Document study

Is reading documents of the institution you are studying, eg. Factors for effective guidance & counseling services in secondary schools in Tanzania

1.Routine client records

2.Correspondence from and to staff2.Correspondence from and to staff

3.Financial charts

4. Official & unofficial documents generated by or for the program

Document study

• The above documents provide the researcher with

basic sources of information regarding activities and

processes of the schools, and can view other

questions not previously considered to follow up on

observations participantsobservations participants

observation or ethnomethodological research.

Types of Documents

1.Internal documents e.g.. Memos-in large institutions like UDOM it's the amount of papers that flow from top to bottom. Of course some flow in the opposite direction as well

2.External communication-the materials that circulate outside the organizationoutside the organization

3.Personal records-about hiring & firing practices, promotion & rewards

NB: A good qualitative study will most likely put to use most of these methods as they are all beneficial.

6. Validity and Reliability

• Validity-in research is how sound your research

is.

You can consider validity in 4 four types, these are:

a) Internal Validity-is attained when the researcher

managed to control all the extraneous variables.managed to control all the extraneous variables.

e.g.. In a study of the effectiveness of teaching

method, lets say mediated learning experience

(MLE). One group will be taught using MLE while

the other will not.

Validity cont…

After sometime give the same test to both groups.

If you managed to control all extraneous variables, then

you will attain internal validity. Internal validity is

very difficulty to achieve.very difficulty to achieve.

As you try to control extraneous variables, external

validity is threatened

So, you must compromise because you can not control

all threats..

Threats of internal validity

• Maturation-due to time that has elapsed

• Test-retest can give a clue of the study

• History events that occur simultaneous with the study

• Instrumentation- use of different tools can change resultsresults

b) External validity- is the researchers` ability to generalize the findings of a study.

As a researcher when you control threats of internal validity you create artificial environment which generalization of other settings is impossible.

Threats of external validity

• Reactive of testing

• The interactive effects of selection of respondents

• The reactive effects of experimental arrangement

• Multiple treatment interference• Multiple treatment interference

c) Statistical Validity-refers to the accuracy of the conclusion drawn from the statistical test.

Eg. If your results show that enrolment at UDOM is 70% males and 30% females, then you conclusion that there is equal opportunity at UDOM.

Such conclusion is wrong

Validity cont…

d) Construct validity address the degree to which the underlying theory of research explains the observed results.

E.g.. Theory show that adolescents are sexually active as such they are vulnerable to consequences such as such they are vulnerable to consequences such as unplanned pregnancies, induced abortion, STDs including HIV/AIDS

However, your findings from 1000 students shows that 12-20 years students none is sexually active, then these results are not valid.

Reliability

• We often speak of reliable friend

• We often speak of reliable machine

• News, people speak of reliable source of

information

• Whatever the case may be, what is reliability?

�Reliable usually mean dependable or trustworthy�In research Reliability has to do with quality of measurement�Reliability is the consistency or repeatability of your measures

Reliability

• A measure is considered reliability if it would give you the same results over and over again (when you assume what you are measuring is not changing) is a composition of two components: true ability (or true level) of respondent on that item; and random errorlevel) of respondent on that item; and random error

Eg..You observed Juma`s score of 85% in SE 301 timed test.

However, in reality the ability of Juma might be better than the score indicated eg,89%

So the error for Juma is 89%-85%= -4%

Reliability

What does this mean?

While Juma`s ability is 89% he may have had bad day,

like no breakfast, quarreled with someone, some

distract while doing the test etcdistract while doing the test etc

Measures like these can contribute to errors in

measurement that makes the students` observed

abilities appear lower than their true or actual

abilities.

Reliability cont..If your measure of 85% is reliable, you should find

that if you measure/observe twice on the same

persons the score should be pretty much the same

Why would they be the same? How do you know?

X1 X2

T+e1 T+e2

Reliability

The two error scores(e1 and e2) have different values,

because you are likely to have different errors in

different occasions.

However, the true score “T” is the same for both testsHowever, the true score “T” is the same for both tests

NB: 1.Sometimes errors will lead Juma to perform

better on test than his ability eg. good day for

guess work

2.The error is randomly distributed

Types Reliability

a) Inter-rater or inter-observer reliability-is used to

assess the degree to which different raters or

observers give consistent estimates of the same

behavior.

b) Test-retest reliability-is used to assess the b) Test-retest reliability-is used to assess the

consistency of a measure from one time to

another.

c) Parallel forms reliability-is used to assess the

consistency of the results from one test

constructed in the same way from the same

content domain.

Types cont…

d) internal consistency reliability- is used to assess the

consistency of results across items within a test.

When you are done with validity & reliability you move

onto data analysis planonto data analysis plan

7.Data analysis plan

What is data?

-Is something known or assumed as fact

-A thing given as a basis of reasoning or calculation

What is variable?

Variable is observed quantity or attribute which varies

from one member of the population/sample being

studies to another.

Dependent variables

Dependent/response variable (s) are those depend

upon the values of independent variables.

Commonly used symbol is Y

E.g..E.g..

1.Students performance

2.Teachers motivation

3.Knowledge, attitude and practice

Independent variables

Independent/explanatory variable-is the one that is

manipulated by the researcher; Commonly use X

symbol

E.g..E.g..

1.Working hours

2.Age

3.Gender

4.Years of experience

5.Level of education

Classification of variables

One way of classifying;

Data (information)

Quantitative data Qualitative data

represented numerically Attributes are measured

eg. The body of mass of eg. Gender or eye coloreg. The body of mass of eg. Gender or eye color

each member of a group of

people

Classification cont..

Quantitative data

Discrete Continuous

Data can only have known can have any value within

fixed values eg. number of a defined range fixed values eg. number of a defined range

Admissions to medical eg. Body mass

ward

0, 1, 2, 3. 4 50kg 60kg 70kg

Measurement scales

1.Nominal scale-is mutually exclusive category that

varies qualitatively eg. Gender, religion, region

For computational purposes, numbers are attached to

the categories when using SPSSthe categories when using SPSS

E.g. Gender: man=1; woman=0

Eye colour:1=blue, 2=brown, 3=black

Note that these doesn't mean the categories are

unequal

Scales cont…

2.Ordinal scale-is more informative than nominal and differ from nominal in that the categories are preserved in the analysis. For computation, numbers are attached to reflect their relative order.

a) Social economic status: High=3; medium=2;low=1 or 1st, 2nd,3rd etc

Note that the difference between medium and high is not equal as between low and medium. Even though numerically 3-2=1and 2-1=1

The numbers just give the rank.

Scales cont…

3.Interval scale-is more informative than nominal and

ordinal scales. The difference between adjacent

categories are equal, however, there is no true ZERO

point.

E.g.. Centigrade temperature scales where 40oC is

higher than 30oC and the difference between 30oC

and 40oC is the same as 10oC and 20oC

However 40oC is not twice the temperature of 20oC,

since 0oC is not absolute ZERO.

Scales cont…

4.Ratio scale-differ from interval scale that there is true

zero point. Ratio scale is more informative that the 3

preceding scales

E.g.. Consider the height in meters. A stick 6 meters. A E.g.. Consider the height in meters. A stick 6 meters. A

stick 6 meters long is twice as much as 3 meters long

stick.

Or A baby 12kg weight is twice as much heavier than a

6kg baby.

Measurement scale

Types of measurement scale based on Puri BK(1996) statistics for the Health science

with permission from WB sources London

Property Nominal Ordinal Interval Ratio

Categories mutually exclusive √ √ √ √

Categories logically ordered √ √ √

Distance between adjacent categories √ √Distance between adjacent categories √ √

True zero point √

Data Analysis

• Statistics analysis

What is statistics?

This is the language that can be employed to express

concepts and relationships than can not be concepts and relationships than can not be

communicated in other way

Statistics is a language to organize, analyze, and

interpret numerical data

Data analysis cont…

• Statistics-can function to

i) Describe data, i.e..

-To explain how the data look

-Where the center point of data is -Where the center point of data is

-How spread out the data may be

-How one aspect of the data may be related to one or

more other aspects.

Data analysis cont…

Eg. If you want to describe the total number of

pregnancies in the adolescent population, you must

calculate:

• The average age at the time of pregnancy,The average age at the time of pregnancy,

• The age range of the group,

• The relationship between age at first coital

experience and at the time of pregnancy,

• And the number of premarital complications.

Data analysis

You should describe this group of adolescents

(Descriptive statistical analysis)

NB: No conclusion can be made beyond this group

Any similarities to those outside (adolescents) can not

be assumed

Data analysis

ii) The second function of statistics is to infer-

(Inferential statistical analysis)

You observe a sample, conclusions about the population are inferred from the obtained information from the sampleinformation from the sample

E.g.. If you were observing the behavior of random sample of adolescent mothers from Moshi Urban.

You could make inference of all adolescent mothers of Tanzania. Here generalization can be made from the sample results.

Inferential statistical analysis

Inferential statistical analysis-can be used for estimation and predictions.

E.g. Graduate Examination Records (GRE) can predict how well a candidate may perform in a graduate studies programstudies program

Extrapolation is also a component of inferential statistics. E.g. Estimation of Tanzania population in 2020 with current HIV/AIDS prevalence.

Levels of measurement

There are several statistical techniques available to social science researchers who wish to describe the observed research group.

1. Measures of Central Tendency

2. Measures of Dispersion, spread or variation2. Measures of Dispersion, spread or variation

3. Measures of relationship

a) Spearman rank order correlation (rs)

b) Pearson product-moment correlation (r )

• It is the responsibility of the researcher to select the technique that best fits her/his data

Measures of central tendency

• Mode-is the most frequently occurring scoreE.g.

Mode-is 7

Mode is the quickest estimate of

central value & show the most studentstudent Score (x)Score (x)

11 99central value & show the most

typical case11 99

22 88

33 77

44 77

55 77

66 66

77 55

88 44

99 22


• Unlike the mean, median is not affected by extreme scores

In some instances it can be the more stable measure of central tendency than the arithmetic mean, Our 9 scores with a median of 7 is a good example.scores with a median of 7 is a good example.

However, it is reserved when a quick measure of central tendency is required to mark the

skew ness of distribution


2.Median-is the measure of position or point above and

below which one of the scores fall.

Mean=Σx =55=6.11studentstudent Score (x)Score (x)11 99 Mean=Σx =55=6.11

n 9

Mean=6.11

Where:

x=scores in distribution

N=number of students

11 99

22 88

33 77

44 77

55 77

66 66

77 55

88 44

99 22


Mean is the fulcrum/balance point of a

distribution, and its one of the most useful

statistical measures because it provides much

information.information.

It is affected by all scores in the distribution

It serves as basis of further computations such

as variability.

Measures of spread/variation

• Although measures of central tendency are useful,

sometimes we need to know more about the

description of the sample or population.

E.g. When comparing two groups with the same mean


Group 1Group 1EnglishEnglish

Score (x)Score (x) Group 2Group 2KiswahiliKiswahili

Score (x)Score (x)

MargeMarge 1515 KimKim 11

SarahSarah 11 JumaJuma 55

PeterPeter 11 LouiseLouise 55

TeresaTeresa 44 TaramaTarama 66

WendyWendy 44 VanesaVanesa 44

LizLiz 33 FredFred 11

GeorgeGeorge 11 AshaAsha 55

KarenKaren 33 SiliaSilia 55

ΣΣx=32x=32 ΣΣx=32x=32


Group1.ΣX=32; mean is ΣX/n;32/8; mean=4

Group2. ΣX=32; mean is ΣX/n;32/8; mean=4

When you have similar mean like these, you would like

to know the spread of the scores whether similar to know the spread of the scores whether similar

(homogeneous) or quite different (heterogeneous)


Therefore measures of spread includes:

a) Range-basically this is the difference between the

highest score and the lowest score in a

distribution. It account only the extremes and not distribution. It account only the extremes and not

the bulk of observations.

From the table above

group 1 range will be 15-1=14

Group 2 range will be 6-1=5


b) Variance Score Results for Kiswahili

S2=Σ(X-mean)2

n

Score( x)Score( x) XX--meanmean (X(X--mean)mean)22

11 --33 99

55 +1+1 11

S2=(26)2/8=676/8=84.5

ΣX=32=4 Variance=84.5

8

55 +1+1 11

66 +2+2 44

44 00 00

11 --33 99

55 +1+1 11

55 +1+1 11

ΣΣX=X=3232=4=4 ΣΣX=0X=0 ΣΣX=26X=26

Measures of spread or Variation

Standard Deviation How to obtain

S= √Σ(X-mean)2 standard deviation isn computed by obtaining the

square root of variance.square root of variance.

Hence from the above

example

√84.5=9.12 or 9.1

SD=9.1

Measures of relationship

Correlation coefficient take the values from -1 to +1

A correlation coefficient of zero “0” indicates no

relationship

The closer to -1 or +1, the stronger the relationshipThe closer to -1 or +1, the stronger the relationship

A perfect positive correlation (1.00) specifies that for

every unit increase in one variable there is a

proportional unit increase in the other variable.

Measures of relationship

A perfect negative correlation (-1.00) concomitantly

means that for every unit increase in one variable

there is a proportional unit decrease in the other

variable.

Perfect correlation are highly unlikely in dealing with

human education.

Measures of Relationship

• Scatter gram is the means of presentation of

the data in correlations showing variables that

correspond to the X and Y axis.

• The line that you draw to coordinate the

points is called the line of best fit or

Regression line.

(Refer Correlation scatter plots)


.


• You must be careful not to fall into the trap of

attributing a course-and effect relationship to

variables that might be related

• E.g.. Kuzma (1984) reported a strong relationship E.g.. Kuzma (1984) reported a strong relationship

between a child's foot size and handwriting ability.

This is not a cause and effect relationship although

both increase with age.

Spearman Rank Order Correlation

Spearman Rank order Correlation is used to determine

the relationship between two ranked variables (not

interval or ratio data)

This is designed for nonparametric data.This is designed for nonparametric data.

E.g. “The relationship between type of family and

marital status”

Pearson product-Moment Correlation

(r)Pearson product-moment correlation (r) is often used

for parametric data and is the most precise

coefficient of correlation.

E.g. The relationship between age and weight for E.g. The relationship between age and weight for

infants between age and weight. See the MCH card

(clinic card)

Measures of RelationshipEarly 1990s a statistician named Charles Spearman

developed a technique for analyzing ordinal/rank data

known as Spearman Rank Order Correlation (rs) which

is used to determine the relationship between two

ranked variables or ordinal data (not interval or ratio

data)data)

This is designed for nonparametric data only

E.g.. “The relship btn type of family & marital status


(rs)• 1st step. Replace the observations by rank number in

ascending order. If two or more variable are equal, find the average rank.

• 2nd step. Record the difference btn the ranks

• 3rd Square the differences and • 3rd Square the differences and

• 4th step. Sum up the squared differences. See example below. The formula is

rs=1- 6Σd2

n(n2-1)

E.g.. There is no relationship btn social rank and skill rank among primary school pupils in Ipagala primary school

Spearman rank order correlation

There relationship between social rank and skill rank

r =1- 6

(18)10(1001)

108/990;10.11;

pupilpupil Social Social rankrank(x(x

Skill rankSkill rank(y)(y)

D or D or (X(X--Y)Y)

DD22

(X(X--Y)Y)

AA 22 11 11 11

BB 44 33 11 11

CC 11 22 --11 11108/990;10.11;

rs=0.89DD 88 88 00 00

EE 33 66 --33 99

FF 66 44 22 44

GG 99 1010 --11 11

HH 55 55 00 00

II 1010 99 11 11

JJ 77 77 00 00

ΣΣDD22=18=18


From the answer above, then we would like to know

whether or not the difference between social rank

and skill rank is significantly from 0

rs= 0.648 for 10 pupilsrs= 0.648 for 10 pupils

There is a rs critical table to compare the answer. See

Table C is the answer significantly different from 0 at

0.05 level of significant?

a) At 0.05= rs 0.648


b) Since our rs observed is 0.89>rs 0.648 from the table, we would reject the null hypothesis.

We conclude that a correlation coefficient of this size=0.89 did not happen just through sampling error, and we would then state that it is significantly error, and we would then state that it is significantly different from 0 at 0.05 level of significant.

In terms of the study, we would conclude that

“A relationship exist between social rank and skill rank, those pupils with high scores in social had better scores in skill”


The meaning of rs1. When there is perfect positive correlation between

2 variables, the pairs of ranks (x,y) for each

individual would be identical.individual would be identical.

2. As such all differences D or ( x-y) would be 0; the

squared difference D2 or (x-y)2 would be 0; and the

fraction 6ΣD2/n(n2-1) would be 0,

leaving rs=1-0=1


rs

3.As the relationship drops, the differences and ΣD2

increase and rs of course gets smaller

4. Finally when there is a negative correlation, the

difference and ΣD2 are very large indeed so that the difference and ΣD are very large indeed so that the

fraction to be subtracted from 1 is greater than 1,

resulting in a negative rs

NB: However, this outcome does not necessarily imply

a cause-and-effect relationship.

Pearson product-moment

correlation rKarl Pearson (1857-1936) was an English Statistician

who derived Pearson product-moment correlation( r)

Often used for parametric data (interval or Ratio) and is

the most precise coefficient of correlation.the most precise coefficient of correlation.

E.g. a) The relationship between height and weight for

infants

b) There is no significant relationship between SE

301 and SE 300 among UDOM third year students.

Relationship btn Maths & CivicsPerformances among Makole std 5 pupils

PupilPupil Math's (x)Math's (x) Civics yCivics y xx22 YY22 XYXY

AA 44 44 1616 1616 1616

BB 66 33 3636 99 1818

CC 77 55 4949 2525 3535CC 77 55 4949 2525 3535

DD 33 11 99 11 33

EE 33 99 99 8181 2727

FF 44 33 1616 99 1212

GG 44 33 1616 99 1212

HH 22 88 44 6464 1616

II 99 77 8181 4949 6363

JJ 88 66 6464 3636 4848

ΣΣx=50x=50 ΣΣy=49y=49 ΣΣxx22=300=300 ΣΣyy22=299=299 ΣΣxy=250xy=250


correlation

(r) Formulae

r= NΣXY-ΣXΣYr= NΣXY-ΣXΣY

√NΣX2-(ΣX)2√NΣY2-(ΣY)2

Relationship btn Maths & Civics

Performances among Makole std 5 pupils

r = 10(250)-(50)(49)

√10(300)-(300)√10(299)-299

= 2510-2450= 2510-2450

√(2700)(√2691)

68

r = (51.96)(51.87) =68/2695=0.02

r =0.02


correlation r• Meaning of r significance

• The r observed is =0.02 we compare it with r critical from table B

Our df is N-2; 10-2=8 at significant level of 0.05

r critical is 0.632r critical is 0.632

r observed 0.02<r critical 0.632 at 0.05 significant level

Hence, we accept the null hypothesis that “There is no relationship btn Maths & Civics performances among Makole std 5 pupils.

Other standard scores

Chi-square-denoted by Greek letter (X2) is a

nonparametric test that require independent

sample, i.e. observation of one participant is

independent of any other observationindependent of any other observation

The formulae for X2 is:

X2

=Σ(O-E)2

E

Chi-Square (X2)

• Chi-square is a technique that can determine

whether or not there is a significant difference

between Observed frequencies and Expected

(theoretical) frequencies in two or more categories

E.g.. Suppose you flip a coin 20 times and record the

observation. From law of Probability we should

expect 10 heads and 10 tails. But because of

sampling error we could come up with 9 heads and

11 tails; or 12 heads, 8 tails

Chi-Square (X2)

Table 13.1

Calculating a x2 One way classification

ObserveObservedd

ExpecteExpectedd

(O(O--E)E) (O(O--E)E)22 (O(O--E)E)22

EE

Heads

Tails

dd dd EE

1212882020

101010102020

22--22

4444

0.40.40.40.4X2=0.8X2=0.8

Chi-square

• What does a chi square of 0.8 mean?

The degree of freedom is rows-1 i.e. (2-1=1)

Look at Table F we see that a X2 is 3.84 at df 1 or

greater is needed to be significant at 0.05 levelgreater is needed to be significant at 0.05 level

The X2 of 0.8 in coin flipping experiment happened due

to sampling error,

• We conclude that the deviations between the

observed frequencies and expected frequencies are

not significant.

Chi-squareStudents with learning disabilities have large standard deviations. See

the example below

Table 13.2

Comparing low achieving & learning disabled students on variability

Standard Standard deviati.ndeviati.n

ObserveObservedd

ExpectedExpected (O(O--E)E) (O(O--E)E)22 (O(O--E)E)22/E/E

X2 =(1) =6.36, p>.05

LargerLarger 1515 9.59.5 5.55.5 30.2530.25 3.183.18

SmallerSmaller 44 9.59.5 --5.55.5 30.2530.25 3.183.18

1919 1919 --6.366.36

Chi-square

Note that again df is (r-1; 2-1) 1. Table F df 1

indicate X2 must be equal or exceed 3.84 to

be significant at 0,05 level.

Since our calculated is 6.36>3.84 at p=0.05. We Since our calculated is 6.36>3.84 at p=0.05. We

conclude, there were significant difference btn

the low achieving & learning disabled students

Lets compare more than just two categories

Chi-square X2 DistributionIn SE 301seminar (with 200 students), the leader would

like to see the “normal distribution”

Using X2 to check “normality” of a grade distribution

GradesGrades ObserveObservedd

ExpecteExpectedd

(O(O--E)E) (O(O--E)E)22 (O(O--E)E)22/E/E

A(3.5%)A(3.5%) 1515 77 88 6464 64/7=9.1464/7=9.14A(3.5%)A(3.5%) 1515 77 88 6464 64/7=9.1464/7=9.14

B(24%)B(24%) 5353 4848 55 2525 25/48=0.5225/48=0.52

C(45%)C(45%) 8787 9090 --33 99 9/90=0.109/90=0.10

D(24%)D(24%) 3333 4848 1515 225225 225/48=4.6225/48=4.699

E(3.5%)E(3.5%) 1212200200

77200200

55 2525 25/7=3.5725/7=3.57

Chi-square X2 Distribution

X2 (4)=18.02 P>.01

Results show that X2 is 18.02 and the df (r-1 i.e..

5-1)=4

From Table F a X2 of 18.02 or greater is needed From Table F a X2 of 18.02 or greater is needed

for X2 to be significant at level 0.01. So we

conclude that the leaders` score distribution

deviates significantly from a normal

distribution.

Other standard scores

• Z-score is simply a way of telling how far a

score (or individual) is from the mean in

standard deviation.

• E.g.. If you was calculating the standard • E.g.. If you was calculating the standard

deviations of height of standard one pupils (in

cm), then the Z-score will be given in cm

How to calculate Z-score• English Test Results

Z-score= x-mean

SD

Variance=Σ(x-mean)2

N

SD= √Σ(x-mean)2

N

PupilsPupils Score Score (x)(x)

xx--meanmean (X(X--meanmean))22 ZZ--scorescore

AA 11 --33 99 --3/23/2

BB 55 11 11 ½=0.5½=0.5

CC 55 11 11 ½=0.5½=0.5SD= √42/8=√5.2=2

Z-score= 2

CC 55 11 11 ½=0.5½=0.5

DD 66 22 44 11

EE 44 00 00 00

FF 11 33 99 1.51.5

GG 55 11 99 0.50.5

HH 55 11 99 0.50.5ΣΣ32/8=32/8=44

ΣΣ(X(X--mean)mean)22

Inferential analysis

Inferential analysis-is when you use data from a

sample to make inference to the population.

Eg. Results from a study done in Songea Boys

Sec students you infer to all secondary school Sec students you infer to all secondary school

students in Tanzania

Testing Statistical significance

• When analyzing data using inferential

statistics, two procedures can be done.

1. Testing hypothesis which is commonly used

or or

2. Estimating parameters (confidence interval-

CI), is used when we do not have value of a

population characteristics.

Estimating parameters

• Constructing a CI around a sample mean establishes a range of values for a population parameter in addition to a certain probability of being correct.

• Usually the CI is arbitrary, and researchers used either 95% 0r 99%

• This means the researcher allows an error of 5%(0.05) or 1% (0.01) only.

HYPOTHESIS TESTING

• Hypothesis testing is a procedure to test

whether all observed differences (from the

sample) provide enough evidence to believe

that there is corresponding difference in the that there is corresponding difference in the

population. It determine:

1. The difference should be attributed to

random error. BUT if you find there is

difference you reject the null hypothesis.

Hypothesis testing cont…

2. Whether the difference is large enough for us

to conclude that the population values are

different. If there is large difference you

accept the null hypothesisaccept the null hypothesis

Level of significance

To accept or reject

Null hypothesis

Depends on a

ProbabiliProbability valuety value

InterpretationInterpretation

>.05>.05 Results not Results not Significant,Significant,

Level of significance

(alpha level-α) which

is 5% (0.05) 0r 1%(0.01)

or 0.01%(0.001) alpha

Level.

Significant,Significant,Accept HoAccept Ho

<.05<.05 Result significant, Result significant, accept Hoaccept Ho

<.01<.01 Results is highly Results is highly significant, reject significant, reject HoHo

Accept or Reject the Ho

As a rule of thumb: Accept or Reject the Ho if;

rrss

rr OBSERVED >OBSERVED > CRITICAL/TABULATEDCRITICAL/TABULATEDREJECT REJECT NULLNULLHYPOTHESIHYPOTHESI

xx22HYPOTHESIHYPOTHESISS

rrss

rrXX22

OBSERVED <OBSERVED <CRITICAL/TABULATEDCRITICAL/TABULATED

ACCEPT ACCEPT NULL NULL HYPOTHESIHYPOTHESISS

Normal Curve

Many physiological

measurements (height,

weight, length of nose, behavioral

measurement e.g.. IQ scores, aptitudes measurement e.g.. IQ scores, aptitudes

tests etc. are normally distributed;

The frequency polygon for the

distribution is bell-shaped

asymmetric curve called

Normal curve

• Majority of scores are at center.

Skew ness

The times when the

distribution is concentrated

in either side is called

Skewness.Skewness.

If the scores are

concentrated at the UPPER

end , so the tail is of the curve

skews to the left, we call the

curve is NEGATIVELY SKEWED

Skewness

But if the scores are

concentrated at the

LOWER end of the

distribution, so the distribution, so the

tail of the curve

skews to the right,

We say the curve is

POSITIVELY SKEWED

Skewness

We can compare two frequency

distributions with appropriately

equal values of N as seen in the

figure.figure.

It is easy to compare the spread

and the concentration and the

ability of girls is superior in

that test than boys.

scores

HYPOTHESIS TESTING

Characteristics of Hypothesis

1.It should be clear and precise otherwise your

hypothesis will not be taken as reliable.

2. It should be capable of tested for confirmation or 2. It should be capable of tested for confirmation or

disproved by observation.

3. It should state relationship between variables

(i.e. DVs & IVs), if its relational hypothesis.

E.g.. Academic performance and birth order.

Cont..4.It should be specific and limited in scope. Narrower

hypothesis are more testable

5.It should be tested in most simple terms to be understood by all concerned.

6. It should be consistent with facts/theories

7. It should be agreeable/pleasant to testing within a 7. It should be agreeable/pleasant to testing within a reasonable time because one can not spend life-time collecting data to test it.

8. Hypothesis must explain the facts that give time to the need for explanation i.e. it should have empirical reference

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS• Alternative hypothesis-this is positive

statement and is the one which we wish to

prove true,e.g.There is relationship between

academic performance and birth order of

secondary school students.secondary school students.

• Null hypothesis-it's a negative statement and

is the one which we wish to disprove (reject).

E.g. There is no relationship between

academic performance and birth order of

secondary school students.

Level of Significance• Level of significance is the power the

researcher has to make decisions on whether

or not his/her hypothesis (or observed

evidence) is true.

• Researchers normally take the probability of • Researchers normally take the probability of

5% (0.05) risk of making error and 95% being

correct; or 1% (0.01) error and 99%;

• As such we say that a researcher is willing to

take 0.05 or less risk of reject Ho when it is

true.

Level of Significance

• Thus 0.05 is the maximum value of the

probability of rejecting Ho when it is true,

and normally you determine it before testing

the hypothesis.the hypothesis.

• In case you run statistics and get significant

level of 0.06, will you accept or reject the Ho?

• In case you run statistics and get significant

level of 0.02, will you accept or reject the Ho?

Decision Rule or Testing Hypothesis

To accept or reject null

hypothesis depends

upon

a level of significance

Probability Probability valuevalue

InterpretatioInterpretationn

>.05>.05 Result not Result not significant significant accept Haccept Hoo

a level of significance

(alpha level or α ) which

is 5% (0.05) or 1% (0.02)

or 0.01% (0.001) alpha

level

accept Haccept Hoo

<.05<.05 Result is Result is significant significant reject Hreject Hoo

<.01<.01 Result is Result is highly highly significant significant reject Hreject Hoo

Type I and Type II Errors

• In the process of testing hypothesis, there are

same errors we can make

• If we reject Ho when Ho is true we have

committed type 1 error known as alpha committed type 1 error known as alpha

error=α

• But if we accept Ho when in fact Ho is not true

we have committed type II error known as

beta error=β error


Decision

Accept Ho Reject Ho

Correct Type I errorCorrect Type I error

Ho(true) Decision α error

Ho(false) Type II error Correct

β error decision


• Researchers always try their best to minimize

both errors. However, as you try to reduce

Type I you are most likely to commit Type II

error.error.

• You can not control both types

simultaneously.

• Hence you trade-off between the two types

of errors depending on which one is more

costly in your results and conclusions


E.g. There is no relationship between malaria

and chloroquine

If Type 1 involves the time and funds to conduct

the experiment of manufacturing the the experiment of manufacturing the

medicine

While Type II error means taking risk of

distributing the medicine to patients with

uncertainty of treating malaria.

Then what would you prefer?


When testing hypothesis, you must make all

possible efforts to strike a balance between

committing Type 1 and Type 11 errors.

HOW?HOW?

By setting a very high level for Type 1 error

when testing technique of a certain

hypothesis

Interpretation of findings

What is interpretation?

r observed 0.02<r critical0.632 at 0.05 significant

level

Hence, we accept the null hypothesis that, Hence, we accept the null hypothesis that,

“There is no relationship between Math's &

Civics performance among Makole std 5

pupils”


We can say that interpretation is:

1.Drawing inference from the collected data

after an analysis

2.It is a search for a broader meaning of the 2.It is a search for a broader meaning of the

research findings


Interpretation involves the following aspects:

1. To establish continuity in research through

linking your results to those of others.

2. To establish relationship (of DVs and IVs 2. To establish relationship (of DVs and IVs

within the collected data

3. To extend beyond the data of the study to

include theories and hypotheses.


In short interpretation is an exercise through

which the facts from the study could be

explained and understood better.

Also interpretation provide a theoretical

conception which can serve as a guide to

further research.

Cont….

Why do we interpret our findings?

1.Because it is a way the researcher can make

his/her abstract findings be understood by

society and they can link the study with those society and they can link the study with those

of others

2. Because it is a way to open new avenues of

intellectuals and stimulates the quest for more

knowledge

Cont…

3.Because is the way the researcher can appreciate his/her work, make others understand the significance of the study.

4. Because it serves as a transition from 4. Because it serves as a transition from explanatory to experimental research. Explanatory study does not have hypothesis to begin with, but later the interpretation of results lead to experimental research to test the worthiness

Techniques of Interpretation

1.Give reasonable explanation of the relations

found in the study-know how generalization is

done and concepts being formulated

2. Extra information if collected must be 2. Extra information if collected must be

considered during final interpretation of

results, as this may be key factor in

understanding the problem under study.

Techniques of Interpretation

3.Make consultations with genuine expert who will omit errors which does not bring logical argumentation. This person will help make correct interpretation and enhance the utility of the findingsof the findings

4. You must be in no hurry while interpreting results, because the conclusions which appear to be alright at the beginning may not at all be accurate.

Precautions in InterpretationNB: Even when you try hard to minimize errors in

sampling the respondents, collecting data and

analyzing, making a mistake interpretation would

lead to inaccurate conclusions

Precautions in interpretation…Precautions in interpretation…

Some hints to consider

1.Satisfy yourself that

� You have appropriate and adequate data for

drawing inference

Precautions in Interpretation

� Data reflect good homogeneity

� Proper analysis has been done using proper

statistical methods

2.Must be cautious about errors e.g.

i. Error due to false generalization/wrong i. Error due to false generalization/wrong

interpretation e.g. Application of results beyond

the range of observation, identify cause and effect

etc,

ii. Don’t affirm relationship with either Ha or Ho if its

not there

iii. Be competent with correct statistical measures for

drawing inferences in your study

Precautions cont..

3. You can not separate analysis and

interpretation so:

a. Take much care of reliability of data

b. Computational checks from time to timeb. Computational checks from time to time

c. Validation of results and

d. Comparison of results

Precautions cont

4.Remember your task is:

i. Both to make sensitive observations of relevant occurrences and identify and disengage the factors that are initially not disengage the factors that are initially not seen by our eyes.

ii. Avoid generalization because your sample is restricted to particular time, particular are, and particular conditions

Hence frame your results within their limits

Precautions

5.Remember there is constant interaction

between initial hypothesis to be tested,

theoretical conceptions and empirical

observations in the field.observations in the field.

This is the opportunity to show creativity and

originality of your work. So pay much

attention to this interaction while engaged in

interpretation

REPORT WRITING

• No matter how brilliant your hypotheses are or how

well designed and conducted your research is, the

most important part of it is to communicate the

results to others.

• This is the purpose of research, to search knowledge

and share with others.

• Research report is the last step in research study

which requires different skills to accomplish.

Steps in Report writing…1. Logical analysis of the subject matter

a) Either logically from simple to complex structure or

b) Chronologically i.e. on the bases of sequence in time or occurrencein time or occurrence

2. Preparation of final outline-this outline is a guide/aid to the logical/chronological organization of the report.

The guide is a remind of the important points to be included in the full report.

Steps cont..

3. Preparation of the rough draft- put down what you have done in your research study

Here you rewrite the first 3 chapter by changing the action verbs to past tense.the action verbs to past tense.

In chapter one you will put all various limitations faced in the field the techniques adopted for analysis, the presentation of findings, generalization of results, various suggestions and conclusions.

Steps cont

4. Rewriting and polishing of the Rough Draft.

This is the most difficult part of the report writing because: i) it requires more time than the rough draft in careful revision, looking at the rough draft in careful revision, looking at the weakness in logical devt or presentation e.g.>Whether or not the material has unity & consistency (pulling together the information)

>The report stand upright, firm & exhibit a definite pattern

Steps

>whether or not it resemble an old wall of

molding e.g. cement and loose brick

>Check also whether in your rough draft you

was consistent or not.was consistent or not.

>Also check the mechanics of writing e.g.

grammar, spelling and usage of correct word

phrases

Steps

5. Preparation of the final Bibliography

Bibliography which is normally appended to the

research report is:

i) A list of pertinent books to the research. It i) A list of pertinent books to the research. It

must contain all the works you consulted in

the course preparation of proposal and

analysis.

ii) It should be arranged alphabetically

Steps6. Writing the Final Draft

Your final draft should be written in:

i) Concise and objective style

ii) In simple language i.e. avoid vague phrases e.g.. “It seems…” “there may be…”e.g.. “It seems…” “there may be…”

iii) Avoid also abstract terminologies & technical slang (jargon)

iv) Illustrations & examples on common experiences must be incorporated for effective communication of the findings to others

Steps cont..

v) It should enthuse people (not dull) and

maintain interests & must show originality

NB: Each research is intended to solve some

intellectual or societal problem, so:intellectual or societal problem, so:

a) It must contribute to the solution of a

problem

b) Must add to knowledge of both the

researcher and readers.

Layout of the research Report

Layout is what the report should contain. Unless

for an academic research report (dissertation

and thesis) others must contain 3 main parts

a) Preliminariesa) Preliminaries

b) Main text

c) End matter

Layout of the Research Report

1. Preliminaries-these include:

• Title and date

• Acknowledgement or preface or foreword

• Table of contents• Table of contents

• List of tables, figures, charts, maps etc

• Abbreviations


Preliminaries for a Dissertation you have more items like:

• Certification-where your supervisors certify that they have read and agree the document it is ready for submission. Their names signature and data appearsubmission. Their names signature and data appear

• Declaration & Copyright

• Dedication

• Acknowledgement

• Abstract or Executive summary and the list continue table of contents and the following.


2.Main text-this provides the main detail of the report

• Each main section of the report begin on a new pagenew page

• The main text should have the following subsections:

i) Chapter I one-Introduction

ii) Chapter II-Literature review and conceptual theoretical framework

Layout cont..

iii) Chapter III –Methodology

iv) Chapter IV-Presentation of the results and

discussion

V) Chapter V-Conclusion, suggestion and the V) Chapter V-Conclusion, suggestion and the

summary

Layout

3.End matter-these are the appendices attached

at the end of research report. These are:

i) Bibliographies

ii) Technical data e.g. questionnaires, sample ii) Technical data e.g. questionnaires, sample

information, mathematical derivations

Types of Reports

1.Technical report- this emphasizes on:

i) The methods used in the study

ii) The assumptions/hypothesis tested in the

course of studycourse of study

iii) Detailed presentation of results including

supporting data.

Types of Reports

2. Popular report-this emphasize on simplicity and attractiveness of reporting the results through

i) Clear writingi) Clear writing

ii) Minimization of technical e.g mathematical

iii) Details and liberal use of charts & diagrams

Types cont

iv) Attractiveness layout with large print, many

subheadings, charts even cartoons are

characteristics of popular report.

v) Much emphasis also is given on the practical v) Much emphasis also is given on the practical

aspects and policy implications.

Oral presentation

Sometimes you will be required to present your

results orally.

This is effective particularly when policy

recommendations are demanded by project recommendations are demanded by project

results

Oral presentationPros-It provides opportunity of give-and take

decisions, better understanding of results

and their implications

Cons-

i) It lack permanent record concerning the i) It lack permanent record concerning the

research details

ii) Its possible the findings may fade away from

peoples memory even before the action is

taken

Oral present…..

Hence, in order to overcome this ,a written

report may be circulated before the oral

presentation and allow participants to refer to

during the discussionduring the discussion

-Oral presentation is effective when

supplemented by various devices eg. Slides,

wall charts, tables, use of black board/white

board as it reduce boredom

Precautions for writing Research

ReportResearch report is a channel of communication

between the researcher and the reader, thus this task must be done efficiently and effectively. To note of these

1. It should be long enough to cover the subject but short enough to maintain interest

1. It should be long enough to cover the subject but short enough to maintain interest

2. It shouldn't be dull, but sustain readers interest

3. Avoid abstract terminologies and technical language. The report should convey the results as simple as possible

Precautions

4. Readers are often interested to acquire a

quick knowledge of the main results

5. Report should be appropriate and accordance

to the objective of the studyto the objective of the study

6. Report should be free from grammatical

errors

7. Present the report with logical analysis

Precautions

8.Show originality of the results and attempt to solve a problem & must add new knowledge

9.At the end show policy implications related to the problem. Also forecast on the probable future research on the same field.research on the same field.

10.Appendices must be enlisted appropriately

11.Bibliographies must be of good quality (not more than 10 years)

12.Report must be attractive in appearance, neat, clean, whether typed or printed.

Precautions

13.Calculated confidence limits must be mentioned in advance, and various constraints, challenges/limitations experienced in conducting the study should also be listedalso be listed

14.Lastly, forget not to clearly state the objectives of the study, nature of the problem, methods employed and data analysis techniques.

Ethical Issues

• Since the subject matter of the social scientist is

human behavior, it is inevitable that scientific

interests will conflict at times with values placed on

the right of individuals to privacy and self

determinationdetermination

• American psychological Association's Committee on

Ethical standards stress the “informed consent” i.e.

Participants volunteer to participate in the study.

Ethical issues

• In universities, there are institutional Review

Board expected to review proposals for ethical

consideration

• At national level, there is national Board• At national level, there is national Board

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

1.DR.KISANGA Sipora (UDOM-Coed)

2.MR.TARIMO P (UDOM-Coed)

3.MS MSIGWA Albina (UDOM-Coed)

By;

NGAPONDA, Elenzian C (2010/2011)

BED MAD 3rd year

The University of Dodoma-Coed

LADIES AND GENTLEMEN

SUCCESS AND

BETTER LIFE

STRUGGLEAND

ATTITUDINALBETTER LIFE

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