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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Chapter 8 Memory
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Nature of Memory
The Retention of Information or Experience over Time
Three Phases of Memory Encoding Storage Retrieval
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Three Stage Model
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Computer/Memory Analogy Input
Typing, scanning, downloading vs. Visual, acoustic, semantic encoding
Seeing, hearing, sound of words Storage
RAM, hard drive, diskette vs. Sensory memory, short term memory, long term
memory
Retrieval Pulling out of storage, access file vs. Remembering the name of your 6th grade teacher
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Computer Analogy
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Encoding: Sensory Input
Automatic vs. Effortful Encoding
What is the role of attention? Selective attention Divided attention
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Encoding: Levels of Processing
Encoding occurs on a continuum… Shallow processing
Sensory input and general perception Ex) take in visual stimuli, begin to form perception
Intermediate processing Recognition and labeling
Ex) label object as a car
Deep processing Uses meaningful and symbolic characteristics
Ex) specific type of car (i.e. convertible) and associate with a particular memory of driving this car
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Encoding: Elaboration
Elaboration Can Enhance Memory
How Extensively is Information Processed? Vivid examples Self-referencing effect Distinctive memory codes
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
The Identification of Three Memory Systems
Sensory Memory: brief storage of environmental information
Senses bring it in Passive
Echoic (auditory) memory Iconic (visual) memory
Short Term Memory: A limited capacity memory system where we actively “work” with information
Working memory—active Rehearsal loop—audio Sketchpad—visual Central executive—filters and encodes, retrieves from long term
Long-Term Memory: A durable memory system that has an immense capacity for information storage
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Retention: Short-Term Memory
How can we improve STM?
Chunking Memory encoding - elaboration Increase STM capacity: 7 ± 2 chunks Ex) phone numbers (###)-(###)-(####)
Rehearsal Conscious repetition of information Enhances STM duration Eidetic imagery Ex) repeating a phone number until you can write it down
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Retention: Long-Term Memory
Relatively Permanent; Unlimited Capacity
Explicit Long-Term Memory Episodic memory Semantic memory
Implicit Long-Term Memory Procedural memory Classical conditioning
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Retention: Long-Term Memory
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Retention: Explicit LTM
Declarative Memory Hippocampus, temporal lobes, limbic system
Conscious recollection of specific facts and events that can be verbally communicated
Subtypes of Explicit Memory Episodic – autobiographical memories Semantic – knowledge about the world
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Retention: Explicit LTM
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Retention: Implicit LTM
No conscious recollection of an experience
Procedural Memory Cerebellum, temporal lobes, hippocampus
Classical Conditioning
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Memory: Organization
Hierarchies
Schemas (Script)
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Retrieval: Serial Position Effect
Primacy Effect: Weaker Effect LT memory
Recency Effect: Stronger Effect ST memory
Explanations Encoding, rehearsal, and working memory
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Difficulty of Memory Retrieval
Explicit memory can be tested by:
Recall: Retrieval and reproduction of information from memory
Recognition: Deciding whether or not something has been previously encountered
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Retrieval: Special Cases
Autobiographical Memories Structure: Life time periods, general events, event-specific information
Are they accurate?
Emotional Memories Flashbulb memories
Are they accurate?
Repressed Memories First forgotten and later recovered Freudian defense mechanism Motivated forgetting
Are they accurate?
Eyewitness Testimony Distortion Bias Inaccuracy
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Forgetting: Memory Failure
Encoding Failure
Retrieval Failure / Interference Theory Proactive Interference
“Old” info interferes with retrieval of “new” info Examples
Retroactive Interference “New” info interferes with retrieval of “old” info Examples
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Forgetting: Interference
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Forgetting: Memory Failure
Memory Decay and Transience Passage of time forgetting Does not explain all instances of forgetting
Amnesia Anterograde amnesia
Inability to store new information and events
Retrograde amnesia Inability to retrieve past information and events
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Motivated Forgetting
Motivated forgetting: Forgetting because they want to forget information
Suppression: conscious motivated forgetting Ex) trying not to remember an unpleasant experience
Repression: unconscious influence of a person’s behavior, thoughts and feelings
Ex) unpleasant memories pushed out of conscious realm
© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Application: Study Tips
Encoding, Rehearsal, and Retrieval Accuracy and organization Effortful and deep processing Relate information to yourself Distributed practice and test yourself
Mnemonic Strategies Keyword method Acronyms