King1 Ppt Ch01 3

© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.

Chapter 1What is Psychology?


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Defining Psychology

Historical Foundations of Psychology

Contemporary Approaches to Psychology

Specializations and Careers in Psychology

Application: Health and Wellness


Psychology: Defined

The scientific study of behavior and

mental processes

Key components of this definition: Science Behavior Mental Processes


Psychology and Common Sense

Is psychology simply common sense?

Sometimes yes, but sometimes no…

Hindsight Bias

Unexpected Findings


Positive Psychology

Traditional focus on the negative aspects of human experience

More than disordered Positive Psychology Movement

Experiences people value Traits associated with optimal functioning Positive group and civic values


Historical Approaches

Western Philosophy

Biology and Physiology

Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920) First Psychology Laboratory (1879)

established at the University of Leipzig


Structuralism

Wundt: Identify structures of the mind Research described dimensions of feeling:

Pleasure / Displeasure Tension / Relaxation Excitement / Depression

Methodology: Introspection


Functionalism

William James and Pragmatism Identify the functions of the mind

Focused on interactions with environment Adaptive significance: “Why?” Flow of thought: Stream of consciousness


Psychology and Evolution

Charles Darwin (1859)

Natural Selection There exists a constant struggle for resources Nature will favor those traits that promote

reproduction and survival Environmental changes alter evolution’s course


Contemporary Approaches

Seven Current Psychological Perspectives

Biological

Behavioral

Psychodynamic

Humanistic

Cognitive

Evolutionary

Sociocultural


The Biological Approach

Focuses on the brain and nervous system Central to understanding behavior, thought,

and emotion Neuroscience

Structure, function, development, genetics, biochemistry of the nervous system

Chapter 3: Biological Foundations of Behavior


The Behavioral Approach

Focuses on the environmental determinants of observable behavior

Notable Behaviorists: John Watson, B.F. Skinner

Early conflicts with cognitive psychologists Chapter 7: Learning


The Psychodynamic Approach

Emphasizes unconscious thought, conflict between internal drives and society, and early family experiences All influence behavior, thought, and emotion

Notable Psychodynamic Theorists Sigmund Freud, Erik Erikson, Alfred Adler

Chapter 11: Personality


The Humanistic Approach

Focuses on positive human qualities, capacity for self-actualization, free will Developed in response to the behaviorist and

psychodynamic approaches Notable Humanistic Theorists

Carl Rogers, Abraham Maslow Chapter 11: Personality


The Cognitive Approach

Emphasizes the importance of mental processes to problem solving, learning and memory

Mental processes control behavior through memories, perceptions, and thinking

Chapter 9: Thinking, Language, and Intelligence


The Evolutionary Approach

Emphasizes the relevance of evolutionary theory to all behavior and mental processes Current function reflects changes that occurred

in response to ancestral environments Notable Evolutionary Psychologists

David Buss, Leda Cosmides, John Tooby Chapter 3: Biological Foundations of

Behavior


The Sociocultural Approach

Examines how social and cultural environments influence behavior and mental processes In contrast to the evolutionary approach

Studies differences between ethnic and cultural groups within a country

Chapter 12: Social Psychology


Contemporary Approaches

Seven Current Psychological PerspectivesBiological

Behavioral

Psychodynamic

Humanistic

Cognitive

Evolutionary

Sociocultural


Critical Controversy: Altruism

Altruism Defined Voluntary behavior intended to help others Not motivated by expectation of personal gain

Altruism: The Evolutionary Approach Kin selection and inclusive fitness

Altruism: The Sociocultural Approach Social relationships unfold over time


Areas of Specialization

Specializations are not mutually exclusive

Highlighted by “Intersections” in the text

American Psychological Association Abbreviated: APA Currently 56 divisions / specializations



Physiological Psychology

Behavioral Neuroscience

Developmental Psychology

Sensation and Perception



Cognitive Psychology

Learning

Motivation and Emotion

Personality Psychology



Social Psychology

Industrial and Organizational Psychology

Clinical and Counseling Psychology

Health Psychology



Community Psychology

School and Educational Psychology

Environmental Psychology

Psychology of Women



Forensic Psychology

Sport Psychology

Cross-Cultural Psychology


Intersection: Culture and Emotion

Complete the “Happiness” scale in the text Sum your ratings and divide the total by 5 Higher scores = higher perceived happiness

Despite numerous cultural differences, most people report being happy

But culture can impact perceived happiness


Intersection: Culture and Emotion

Individualistic Cultures Individuals viewed as unique and distinct from

their social group Value independence

Collectivistic Cultures Emphasize social group and the individual’s

role within that group Value interdependence


Careers in Psychology

What do psychologists do? And where? Business Social and Human Services Research Education Research Laboratories Clinical and Private Practice Settings






Psychology: Health and Wellness

Psychology is concerned with Mind-Body Connections

The mind impacts the body Examples?

The body impacts the mind Examples?


Chapter Summary

Explain what psychology is and describe the positive psychology movement.

Discuss the roots and early scientific foundations of psychology.

Summarize the main themes of seven approaches to psychology.

Evaluate areas of specialization and careers in psychology. Describe the connections between the mind and the body.


Chapter Summary

Defining Psychology The scientific study of behavior and mental

processes Historical Foundations of Psychology

Origins in philosophy and physiology Structuralism – Wilhelm Wundt Functionalism – William James Evolutionary Theory – Charles Darwin


Chapter Summary

Contemporary Approaches to Psychology Seven current approaches – complementary

Specializations and Careers in Psychology Business, social and human services, research Education, research, clinics and private practice

Application: Health and Wellness The mind-body connection is a “two-way street”


Chapter 2Psychology’s Scientific Method


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Psychology and the Scientific Method Research Settings and Methods Data Analysis and Interpretation Challenges: Research Ethics and Bias Application: Health and Wellness


What Makes Psychology a Science?

Scientific Approach Curiosity Skepticism Objectiveness Thinking critically

Collaboration Peer-reviewed research Meta-analyses


The Scientific Attitude

Curiosity

Skepticism

Objectivity

Thinking Critically


Collaboration

Peer Review

Publication

Research/Scholarly Journals

Meta-Analysis


The Scientific Theory

What is a Theory?

What is a Scientific Theory? Broad idea or set of closely related ideas Attempts to explain observations Makes predictions about future events Connects observations and research


Scientific Method: Observation

Operational Definitions

Objective description of variables

How will variables be measured?


Scientific Method: Hypothesis

Formulate Hypothesis

Testable prediction

Derived from theory


Scientific Method: Research

Collect Data Select participants

Population – entire group of interest Sample – subset of population Random sampling

Design Study / Select Research Method Analyze Data

Data – all information collected in a study Use statistical procedures to understand data


Scientific Method: Conclusions

What do the results mean?

Statistical data analysis

Replication of results (reliability)

Revise theory?


Research: Terms & Settings

What? Variable – anything that varies

Where? “Artificial” world – laboratory setting

Advantages and disadvantages? Real world - natural setting

Advantages and disadvantages?


Descriptive Research

Goal: Observe and Record Behavior

Naturalistic observation Surveys and interviews Standardized tests Case studies


Observation

The goal of observational research is to accurately describe behavior.

Naturalistic Observation: Investigates behavior in its natural environment.

Participant Observation: Studies a group as a participant in the natural environment.


Descriptive Methods

Strengths Study behavior in context May see behavior that would not occur in a lab Systematically record events Record events too risky or unethical to create in a lab

Weaknesses Absence of control Researcher’ presence may alter behaviors Possible invasion of privacy


Campus Bash Fun Using the principles of naturalistic observations, you will

observe behavior as it occurs in its natural environment.

You may utilize either of the following methods for observation

Naturalistic Observation: Investigates behavior in its natural environment.

Participant Observation: Studies a group as a participant in the natural environment.

Describe the context of the behavior, making note of the social roles and norms of the situation and people within.


Campus Bash Fun, con’t Describe any incidence of conformity that you may have

observed

Here are some ideas for your observation: details about the setting and costumes (e.g., location, number of

people present, lighting, background noise, dirty clothes) physical and demographic features of the main "actors” non-verbal behaviors (e.g., personal space, territoriality, gestures,

eye contact, tone of voice) verbal exchanges

Compose your observations in a 1 page paper that you will turn in on Friday.


How Does the Social Situation Affect Our Behavior?

Social Standards of Behavior Social Roles Social Norms

Conformity change in behavior, belief, or both to fit the group Norms: influence our behavior to do what is expected

or “normal” Mode of responding (written vs. spoken) Status lesser or higher


How Does the Social Situation Affect Our Behavior?

Compliance Compliance gaining strategies:

FITD: start small, keep getting buy in, then assume compliance DITF: ask big, want small Low-Ball: get compliance with an attractive less costly investment

then renigging on it. Car sales

Social loafing: evil of the group project, diffusion of responsibility

Bystander effect


Descriptive Research

Goal: Observe and Record Behavior

Naturalistic observation Surveys and interviews Standardized tests Case studies


Correlational Research

Goal: Identify Relationships

Correlation coefficient: r

-1.00 ≤ r ≤ 1.00

Strength of relationship: #

Direction of relationship: + / -


Correlation Coefficients


Scatter Plots


Correlational Research

Positive Correlations Factors vary in same direction ↑ and ↑ … or … ↓ and ↓

Negative Correlations Factors vary in opposite direction ↑ and ↓ … or … ↑ and ↓


Correlation and Causation

Correlation does not equal causation Third Variable Problem

Multivariate approach Longitudinal design

Advantages and Disadvantages of Correlational Research


Experimental Research

Goal: Determine Causation

Random Sampling and Assignment

Independent Variable(s) – Manipulation

Dependent Variable(s) – Measurement


Experimental Research

Experimental Group Receives IV manipulation

Control Group Treated equally, but no IV manipulation


Psychology’s Research Methods

Insert figure 2.4 here


Validity

Ecological validity Representative of real world issues? Do results generalize to the real world?

Internal validity Are DV changes the result of IV manipulation? Bias? Logical errors?


Bias and Expectations

Experimenter Bias

Research Participant Bias

Placebo Effect

Double-Blind Experiment


Intersection: TMT Theory

Ernest Becker – human life and culture Terror Management Theory (TMT)

Death “awareness” leads to worldview defense Empirical Support

Rosenblatt and others (1989) Landau and colleagues (2004) Routledge and others (2004)


Analyzing and Interpreting Data

StatisticsMathematical methods used to report data

Descriptive Statistics Describe and summarize data

Inferential Statistics Draw conclusions about data


Descriptive Statistics

Measures of Central Tendency Mean Median Mode

Measures of Dispersion Range Standard deviation


Inferential Statistics

Does data confirm the hypothesis?

Statistical significance

α = 0.05 (confidence level)

Significance vs. meaningfulness


Research Ethics

Research participants have rights! Institutional Review Board (IRB) APA Guidelines

1. Informed consent

2. Confidentiality

3. Debriefing

4. Deception


Animal Research in Psychology

Animal Research and Human Problems Prevalence of Animal Research Animals Rights and Welfare Institutional Animal Care and Use

Committees (IACUC)


Minimizing Bias in Research

Gender Bias Research historically focused on males

Cultural and Ethnic Bias Research historically focused on middle-

socioeconomic-status European Americans Overgeneralizations about ethnic groups

Currently research emphasizes diversity: gender, ethnicity, socioeconomic status


A Wise Consumer…

… is skeptical yet open-minded!

Cautions Distinguish between group results and

individual needs Avoid overgeneralizing results Look for converging evidence Question causal inferences Consider the source


Application: Happiness

The Science of Happiness Subjective Well-Being Happiness ↔ Life Success Challenges to Becoming Happier

The hedonic treadmill The pursuit of happiness


Chapter Summary

Explain what makes psychology a science. Discuss common research settings and the three main

types of research that are used in psychology. Distinguish between descriptive statistics and inferential

statistics. Discuss some challenges that involve ethics, bias, and

information. Discuss scientific studies on human happiness and the

nature of their findings.


Chapter Summary

The scientific method is marked by Curiosity, skepticism, objectiveness, and

critical thinking

Research settings and methods Descriptive, correlational, and experimental

studies conducted in natural settings or the lab


Chapter Summary

Data analysis and interpretation Descriptive and inferential statistics

Challenges: Research Ethics and Bias APA guidelines and the IRB

Application: Health and Wellness The scientific study of happiness


Chapter 3Biological Foundations of Behavior


3-1 The Neuron

Neurons are specialized cells in the nervous system that send and receive information.


1) The Neuron

Researchers have identified three different types:

Sensory Neurons: Detect stimuli inside the body or in the world

Motor Neurons: Send commands from the brain to other parts of the body, telling them what to do

Interneurons: Connect other neurons to one another.


2) A Neuron Consists of a Soma, Dendrites, and an Axon

The basic components of the neuron are the:

Soma: The cell body of the neuron

Dendrites: Branch-like extensions of the soma that receive information from other neurons.

Axon: Tail of the soma that sends electrochemical messages


2) A Neuron Consists of a Soma, Dendrites, and an Axon

More Neuron parts:

Myelin sheath: A protective coating of fatty cells around an axon

Synapses: The entire area of the terminal button of one neuron and the synaptic cleft, and the dendrite of another neuron.

Terminal Buttons: Area that releases neurotransmitters to a receiving neuron.


Neurons: Structure


3-3c Brain Parts Amygdala: Fear & Agression (Approach or Avoid) Cerebral Cortex: Higher order mental processes Cerebellum: Body movement and coordination Hipocampus: Acquisition & consolidation of new info Hypothalamus: Homeostasis (balance: eat, drink, sex) Limbic System: Emotional Center Medulla: Breathing, heart rate, swallowing Pons: Sleeping and arousal Thalamus: Sensory Relay station


The Neural Impulse

Resting Potential Stable, negative charge of an inactive neuron

Action Potential Ion gates cause depolarization Brief, positive electrical charge: firing

All-or-None Principle Once initiated, it cannot be stopped


Synapses and Neurotransmitters

Synaptic Transmission Neurochemical communication Action potential (electrical impulse) is

converted into a chemical signal Synapses

Space between terminal buttons and the receiving neuron’s cell body or dendrites


Synapses and Neurotransmitters


Neurotransmitters

Neurotransmitters either excite or inhibit Acetylcholine

Muscle actions, learning, memory Alzheimer’s disease: ↓ Ach levels Nicotine: ↑ Ach levels

GABA – inhibitory functions Anxiety: ↓ GABA levels


Neurotransmitters

Norepinephrine Stress and mania: ↑ Norepinephrine levels Depression: ↓ Norepinephrine levels Regulates sleep states in conjunction with ACh

Dopamine Stimulant drugs: ↑ Dopamine levels Parkinson’s disease: ↓ Dopamine levels


Neurotransmitters

Serotonin Regulation of sleep, mood, attention, learning Depression: ↓ Serotonin levels Prozac ↑ Serotonin levels

Endorphins Endogenous (natural) opiates Mediate feelings of pleasure and pain


Neurotransmitters

Oxytocin Both a hormone and a neurotransmitter Related to onset of lactation in new mothers Related to attachment / emotional bonds

Drugs and Neurotransmitters Agonist – mimics or enhances NT effects Antagonist – blocks effects of NT


The Nervous System: Divisions


The Nervous System: Divisions

Central nervous system (CNS) Brain and spinal cord

Peripheral nervous system (PNS) Somatic nervous system

Sensory nerves and muscular activity Autonomic nervous system – internal organs

Sympathetic nervous system – arouses Parasympathetic nervous system – calms


The Endocrine System Communicates by Secreting Hormones Endocrine system: Network of glands that manufacture and secrete hormones

directly into the bloodstream

Hormones: Chemical signals manufactured and secreted into the blood in one part of the body and that affect other parts of the body.

The Pituitary gland

body’s “master” gland

located at the base of the brain

stimulates and regulates the endocrine system.


Modern Technology Measures Five techniques that may be used for for measuring the

brain’s electrical activity, structure, blood flow, and chemistry are:

Electroencephalograph (EEG): Records “waves” of electrical activity in the brain

Computerized Axial Tomograph (CAT): Combines thousands of X-ray photographs to construct a cross-sectional image of the brain.

Positron Emission Tomography (PET) scan: Measures average amount of metabolic activity in brain regions


Modern Technology Measures

Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI): Produces 3-D images of the brain’s soft tissue by detecting magnetic activity

Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI): Measures the average neural activity in different brain regions


3-3c Brain Parts Amygdala: Fear & Agression (Approach or Avoid) Cerebral Cortex: Higher order mental processes Cerebellum: Body movement and coordination Hipocampus: Acquisition & consolidation of new info Hypothalamus: Homeostasis (balance: eat, drink, sex) Limbic System: Emotional Center Medulla: Breathing, heart rate, swallowing Pons: Sleeping and arousal Thalamus: Sensory Relay station


The Cerebral Cortex Consists of Specialized Regions, or “Lobes.”

Occipital Lobes: visual processing

Parietal Lobes: touch sensation

monitors body’s position


11) The Cerebral Cortex Consists of Specialized Regions, or “Lobes.”

Temporal Lobes: audition and language.

Frontal Lobes: coordination; higher mental processes.


13) The Right and Left Cerebral Hemispheres Function Differently Research shows these cautious generalizations:

Right hemisphere: visual and spatial tasks recognizing nonlinguistic sounds identifying faces perceiving and expressing emotions

Left hemisphere: Excels at language, logic providing explanations for events


14) The Sexes May Differ in Their Hemispheric Organization Hemisphere Organization Left hemisphere damage due to stroke

Men are more likely to develop aphasia Women’s brains are bilateralized for

language Women’s left hemispheres may be

organized differently than men’s.


15) The Brain Can Alter Its Neural Connections

Plasticity: ability to alter its neural connections

Peak age of plasticity is 4-10 years of age


Genes and the Environment

The “Nature versus Nurture” Debate Nature describes one’s genetic potential

Genotype – genetic heritage Nurture the expression of that potential

Phenotype – observable characteristics Both physical and psychological characteristics