2

Basic Concepts: Philosophical

Analysis of Play, Recreation, and

Leisure

Objectives

• Define, compare and contrast play, recreation, and leisure.

• Provide an overview of the early play theories.• Discuss contemporary views of play, recreation,

and leisure.• Identify the six views of leisure as presented in

the text.• Discuss the interrelationship between play,

recreation, and leisure.

Introduction• Clarification & interrelatedness of play,

recreation, and leisure

• Development of sound philosophy of recreation services

The Meaning of Play

• A form of human or animal activity or behavioral style that is self-motivated and carried on for intrinsic, rather than external, purposes.

• Often is marked by elements of competition, humor, creative exploration and problem solving, and mimicry or role playing

The Meaning of Play (cont’d)• Historical Perspectives

– Greece—valuable role in the lives of children– Catholic Church—play becomes regarded as a

social threat• Body thought to detract from spiritual values

–Effort to curb pleasure pursuits– Educators and philosophers defend play

• Important aspect of childhood education

Early Theories of Play• Surplus Energy Theory—Herbert Spencer

– Play motivated by the need to burn up excess energy

– Does not account for nonphysical play– Does not account for play in people with low

levels of energy

Early Theories of Play• Relaxation Theory

– Play restores energy– Reenergizes physical and mental energy– Play relaxes individuals

Early Theories of Play (cont’d)• Catharsis Theory

– Play serves as a safety valve for bottled up emotion

– Play provides an acceptable channel for expression of aggression or hostility

Twentieth-Century Concepts of Play

• Self-Expression Theory– Play as a need for self-expression– Play allows people to use their abilities and

express their personalities

– Activities influenced by physiological and anatomic structure, physical fitness level, environment, and family and social background

Twentieth-Century Concepts of Play (cont’d)

• Play as a Social Necessity—Joseph Lee– Play as a force in child development and

community life

– Need for organized play opportunities that served as an alternative to the difficult life children living in poverty faced on the streets

Twentieth-Century Concepts of Play (cont’d)

• Typologies of Play Activity– Classification characteristic of various

cultures—Caillois• Agon - competitive activities• Alea - games of chance• Mimicry - make-believe, role playing• Ilinx - pursuit of vertigo or dizziness

Twentieth-Century Concepts of Play (cont’d)

• Contrasting styles of play• Paidia - exuberance, freedom, gaiety• Ludus - rules and conventions and

represents calculated and contrived activity

Twentieth-Century Concepts of Play (cont’d)

• Play element in culture—Johan Huizinga• Play pervades all of life, with its own

ethical value• War as play• Play in the business world

Psychological Analysisof Play

• Play in Personality Development– Play provides an opportunity for children to

learn about the world– Play prompts enjoyment, freedom, fun, self-

expression, creativity, self confidence– Play allows children to learn to interact with

others through cooperative, sharing, and conflict-resolution activities

Psychological Analysisof Play

• Psychoanalytical Perspectives on Play– Method to gain control and competence– Play represents the child's way of dealing

with reality– By playing reality becomes more acceptable

and allows child to gain mastery over threatening events

Psychological Analysis of Play (cont’d)

• Play as Creative Exploration– Stimulus-Arousal

• Humans and animals seek stimuli for knowledge, excitement, risk, surprise, and pleasure

• Stimuli seeking can be positive or negative– Light, enjoyable, pleasant– Frustrating, boring, unpleasant

Psychological Analysis of Play (cont’d)

• Play as Creative Exploration– Competence-Effectance Theory

• Motivated by the need of the player to test the environment, solve problems, and gain a sense of mastery and accomplishment

• Cziksentmihalyi's "Flow"

The Meaning of Leisure: Six Views

• Classical Value– Activity performed for its own sake– Sharply contrasted with work

– Pursuits as art, political debate, philosophical discussion, and learning in general

– Leisure is the absence of work

The Meaning of Leisure: Six Views

• Leisure as a Symbol of Social Class—Veblen– Leisure became the hallmark of the upper

class– Changed as working class grew in size– Upper class still participate in a wide variety of

expensive, prestigious, and sometimes decadent leisure activities

The Meaning of Leisure: Six Views (cont’d)

• Leisure as Unobligated Time– Time free from work or work-related

responsibilities– Excludes time devoted to essential life-

maintenance activities & other obligations– Contemporary Americans feel increased

time pressure

The Meaning of Leisure: Six Views (cont’d)

• Leisure as Activity– Leisure closely related to recreation and

activity– Makes little allowance for low-activity

leisure pursuits– Feminist critiques focus irrelevance of

work/leisure dichotomy

The Meaning of Leisure: Six Views (cont’d)

• Leisure as a State Marked by Freedom– Perceived freedom of the activity– Leisure as promoting personal fulfillment

and self-enrichment– Leisure as part of a holistic lifestyle

The Meaning of Leisure: Six Views (cont’d)

• Leisure as Spiritual Expression– Leisure is an important

means of spiritual expression

– Spirituality emerges in leisure through nature, mediation, relaxation & other activities

© Noel Powell, Schaumburg/ShutterStock, Inc.

The Meaning of Leisure: Six Views (cont’d)

• Leisure Defined

– Implies freedom and choice and is customarily used in a variety of ways, including to meet one’s personal needs for reflection, self-enrichment, relaxation, pleasure, and affiliation.

– May be regarded as a holistic state of being and/or spiritual experience

The Meaning of Recreation

• Recreation represents a fusion between play and leisure

• Recreation—that which refreshes or restores• Holds the potential for being pleasant,

rewarding, and creative

Contemporary Definitions of Recreation

• Recreation is activity– Physical, mental, social, or emotional

involvement– Excludes idleness & complete rest

• Voluntary involvement• Internal motivation• Dependent on state of mind• Purpose is pleasure seeking

Contemporary Definitions of Recreation (cont’d)

• Voluntary Participation– Generally recreation is viewed as voluntary

& without obligation• Teams, leagues, & pressures from

family or friends reduces the voluntary nature of recreation © E. Dygas/ Photodisc/ Getty Images

Contemporary Definitions of Recreation (cont’d)

• Motives for Participation – Often goal-oriented– Murphy identified following types of

behaviors:• Socializing behaviors• Associative behaviors• Competitive behaviors• Risk-taking behaviors• Exploratory behaviors

Contemporary Definitionsof Recreation (cont’d)

• Recreation as an Outcome– Recreation viewed in terms of benefit it

provides– Leisure researchers have studied social-

psychological outcomes of participation– Contemporary interest in relationship

between recreation and health outcomes

Contemporary Definitions of Recreation (cont’d)

• Recreation as a Social Institution– Significant institution in the community– Public, nonprofit, commercial services

providers– Professional associations & degree

programs emerged

Contemporary Definitions of Recreation (cont’d)

• Recreation Defined

– Human activities or experiences that occur in leisure time.

– Usually, they are voluntarily chosen for intrinsic purposes and are pleasurable, although they may involve a degree of compulsion, extrinsic purpose, and discomfort, or even pain or danger.

Relationships Among Play, Leisure, and Recreation

• Play is more a form of behavior than activity• Play can occur during work or leisure• Recreation has broader applications & can be

provided by agencies that do not have recreation as a primary focus– Armed forces, businesses

• Recreation can include non-play like activities– traveling, reading, going to museums

• Leisure is more abstract, focus of research by many different disciplines

Relationships Among Play, Leisure, and Recreation (cont’d)

• Role of Recreation and Leisure in Professional Education Curricula– Emphasis of leisure studies program

• Approaches of social and management sciences

• Examination of leisure as a function of social and cultural factors