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GENERAL INTRODUCTION
TO THE AGRIYOUTH COURSE
MODULE 3
ORGANIC CROPS AND
BIODIVERSITY PROTECTION
MODULE 3
REMARK
This module consists of two parts:
•The first part, including 20 slides, covers general themes related to organic
crops and biodiversity protection.
• At the end of the first part it will be a set of ten questions. For each question
there are three answers, just one of them correct. If all your answers are right
you pass the test, otherwise you will repeat the sequence till the test is
completed without mistakes.
•The second part, including 30 slides, contains details on organic crops and
biodiversity protection.
•As for the first part, at its end there will be ten multiple choice questions. If all
your answers will be correct, the system will allow to print a Certificate
corresponding to the 3rd Level.
MODULE 3
INTRODUCTION
Introduction Organic farming is a method of crop and livestock production that involves much more than choosing not to use
pesticides, fertilizers, genetically modified organisms, antibiotics and growth hormones. Organic production is a
holistic system designed to create a harmonious relationship between people and environment, farming and agro-
ecosystem, including protection of soil organisms, plants, livestock. The principal goal of organic production is to
develop enterprises that are sustainable and consistent with a natural perpetuation of species and environment.
This course, as a part of the AgriYouth project on innovative trends in agriculture, aims at creating a brief but
complete curriculum in organic farming and food, enabling the learner/user to better understand context,
regulations, know-how and techniques to start an organic farming business.
MODULE 3.1. Basic knowledge in organic farming
The purpose of this module is the following:
Learning outcome 1 To understand the basis of organic farming and main differences from conventional
agriculture
Learning outcome 2 To recognize the procedures for organic farming and related transition
MODULE 3.2. General rules for organic farming
The purpose of this module is the following:
Learning outcome 1 To get at a glance meaning and consequences of the regulations and policies on
organic farming and related certification
Learning outcome 2 To know economic relevance and consistence of organic farming In the EU
MODULE 3
INTRODUCTION
MODULE 3.3. Organic crops
The purpose of this module is the following:
Learning outcome 1To satisfy the background needs for sustainable agriculture and organic farming
Learning outcome 2 To understand and manage relationships soil/crops and related organic farming
procedures
Learning outcome 3 To understand and manage relationships nutrition/plant and related organic
farming techniques
MODULE 3.4. Organic food processing
The purpose of this module is the following:
Theoretical and practical organic food processing
Learning outcome 1 To understand and manage organic food processing
Learning outcome 2 To understand and manage organic food processing prescriptions
Learning outcome 3 To understand and manage organic food packaging and labeling
MODULE 3.5. Marketing and commercialization of organic food
The purpose of this module is the following:
Learning outcome 1 To understand and manage organic food marketing and commercialization
Learning outcome 2 To understand and manage organic food certification and controls
MODULE 3
PART I – LEVEL 2
MODULE 3.1 Basic knowledge in organic farming.3.1.1 THE ORIGINS OF ORGANIC FARMING.
The beginnings of modern organic farming can be traced back to end of the 19th century, when groups of thinkers,
mainly in Germany, began to analyse the widening gap between man and nature, and to speculate as to how this
tendency might be reversed. In the framework of this research, Rudolf Steiner, the Austrian philosopher, teacher,
and founder of anthroposophy, created, in 1924, a new concept of farming in which the farm was seen as a self-
sufficient living organism. His disciple Ehrenfried Pfeiffer developed this theory and called it "biodynamic farming".
The main principles of this approach were:
- the rejection of the use of soluble mineral-based plant foods;
- the independence and self-sufficiency of the farm, thanks to a policy of breeding livestock and growing a variety
of crops;
- a belief in the importance of a natural and healthy diet;
-a belief in the importance of lunar and astral influences on the crops.
In England, the "organic farming" school of thought was born immediately after the Second World War. Based
mainly on the ideas of Sir Albert Howard and his assistant Lady Eve Balfour, it emphasised the importance of the
fertility and the biological balance of the soil. In pursuit of these goals, the use of organic compost was considered
of great importance, especially since this was believed to develop the plants’ resistance to parasites and diseases.
MODULE 3
PART I – LEVEL 2
From the 70's to the 90’sOrganic farming really came to the fore at the end of the 1970’s, when the increasingly influential environmentalist
movement meant that farmers and consumers were more concerned about environmental issues. This
phenomenon initially developed in North European countries such as Denmark, Germany and Holland, and then
spread to the countries of the Mediterranean Basin (France, Italy and Greece) and the United States. It gave rise
to the creation of new associations of organic farmers.
In 1972, in France, five organic farming associations founded IFOAM (International Federation of
Organic Associations and Movements); and by 1987, these five had become over one hundred, in 25 countries.
The truly explosive growth in the popularity of organic farming over the last few years has led to an increase by a
factor of five in the number of associations belonging to IFOAM: there are now about 500 of them operating in 100
countries.
In 1977, IFOAM started to define and harmonise the techniques associated with organic farming. They
set out to create a code of practice that was flexible enough to embrace the various schools of thought on which
organic farming was based, but that was also scientifically rigorous and true to the basic aims of the movement.
This process was made necessary by the following aims:
- to provide clear information to producers and consumers;
- to create conditions that would facilitate regulation and self-regulation;
- to take steps against fraud and misleading advertising.
In 1980 IFOAM published the first standard for organic production and processing, a basic guide for all
members and certification bodies. It was only in 1991, with the passing of EC Regulation 2092, that the organic
farming method became an officially recognised set of rules, guidelines, and procedures that clearly defined a
specific method of production. In June 1992 the Codex Alimentarius Commission decided to discuss and develop
the “Guidelines for the Production, Processing, Marketing and Labelling of Organically Produced Foods”,
established in Codex Alimentarius 1999.
MODULE 3
PART I – LEVEL 2
3.1.2 ORGANIC FARMING TODAY Basic principles and techniques
Organic agriculture is defined as a production system that is managed to respond to site specific conditions by
integrating cultural, biological and mechanical practices that foster cycling of resources, promote ecological
balance and conserve biodiversity.
The fundamental principles of organic farming are as follows:
- to view the farm as a single system or "organism" that exists within the context of a local ecosystem;
- to protect the balance of relationships within the farm’s own system, as well as those existing between the
farm’s system and the surrounding ecosystem;
- to maintain a marked degree of biodiversity within the system, so as to promote the control of parasites and
destructive organisms;
- to encourage the biological cyclicity of the natural system, paying particular attention to the cycle of organic
substances, so as to promote humification;
- to make maximum use of solar energy and to reduce the use of all types of external input to an absolute
minimum.
More specifically, organic farming entails:
- use of cover crops, green manures, animal manures and crop rotations to fertilize the soil, maximize biological
activity and maintain long-term soil health;
- use of biological control, crop rotation and other techniques to manage weeds, insects and diseases;
- an emphasis on biodiversity of the agricultural system and the surrounding environment;
- using rotational grazing and mixed forage pastures for livestock operations and alternative healthcare for animal
wellbeing;
- reduction of external and off-farm inputs and elimination of synthetic pesticides and fertilizers and/or other
materials, such as hormones, antibiotics and GMO;
-a focus on renewable resources, soil and water conservation and management practice that restore maintenance
and enhance ecological balance.
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PART I – LEVEL 2
Various research confirmed that the organic system can be more efficient at storing nitrogen and have positive
effects on soil quality, including higher biological activity and a doubling of organic matter in 10 years (USDA
Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education). It is also confirmed that an organic cropping system consumes
3 to 4 times less energy than a conventional system, while also producing 6 times more biomass per unit of
energy consumed (South Dakota State University comparative trial at the Northeast Research Station,
Watertown). Having stated these general principles, we can go on to look at specific farming techniques in order to
promote a clearer idea of how the organic system works and how it differs from the conventional system of
farming.
Firstly, in order to preserve its relationship with the surrounding ecosystem, the farm should grow crops and local
ecotypes that are most suited to the local environment. Furthermore, hedgerows and wooded areas should be
maintained and improved, both in order to increase the biodiversity of the system, and also to act as windbreaks
and to prevent erosion. In this way the farm not only has a minimum impact on the rural landscape, but can even
enhance it.
Ploughing should be kept to a minimum, so as to discourage compacting and erosion, and favour humus
generation. Ploughing that breaks up the clods of earth should always be very superficial, whilst medium- and full-
depth ploughing should only be done with equipment that does not turn the earth.
Grass-planting and mulching can be carried out in order to improve the structure, strength and porosity of the
soil. But organic fertilising should always be done after composting in order to enhance humus spontaneous
production.
Weed-control should be done mainly with the following methods: crop-rotation, mechanical or physical means,
and occasionally by burning.
Crop-rotation must be frequent, alternating leguminous crops with deep-rooted crops, so as to protect the soil
from structural damage, limit the washing away of nutrients, and guarantee fresh supplies of nitrogen through the
regular presence of nitrogen-fixing plants. Suitable crop-rotation also acts to control parasites living in the soil.
Parasite control should be carried out via the appropriate manipulation of the antagonisms that exist in nature.
In some cases (vegetable-growing) it is appropriate to use plants that act as repellents. And sometimes the
methods used can be biological, physical and/or agronomical, biotechnical (attracters and repellents), or low-
toxicity mineral and natural plant-treatments.
MODULE 3
PART I – LEVEL 2
Some schools of thought
Within the world of organic farming, there are various schools of thought that are distinguished from each other by
differences in outlook or technique.
Biodynamic agriculture
This type of farming is characterised by its own particular scientific and spiritual credo. Principally, it represents a
world-view in which man, agriculture, the environment and the productive cycle are all part of a whole that must
develop harmoniously. In 1924, Dr. Rudolf Steiner, the founder of anthroposophy, gave a series of eight talks on
the fertility of the soil: he put forward a world-view in which all the constituent elements inter-reacted and in which
man had only a limited capacity to influence the factors that determine the world’s development. Steiner’s
philosophy never envisages leaving nature entirely to herself, but on the other hand talks in terms of man
participating wisely in the whole range of events that lead towards the production of food for consumption. Yields
will depend on the context and the range of atmospheric conditions such as rain, wind, temperature, sunshine, the
length of the day, and numerous other variables that taken together could be said to make up the macroclimate.
These theories spread mainly in Germany and the north of Europe. The farmer should make sure that all organic
substances resulting from the various processes that take place on the farm, are put back into the system; and he
should try to create harmony between all aspects of the farm - livestock, fields, grassland, woodland - in order to
encourage self-sufficiency. The basic objective of a biodynamic farm is self-sufficiency in fertilisers, seeds, animal-
rearing and the production of biochemical preparations. The use of external inputs is to be reduced to the
minimum; and the only fertilisers that can be bought in are organic manure and possibly rock powder, limestone,
and untreated phosphates. Home-produced manure is to be converted into compost on the spot, and can be
supplemented by very small quantities of plant-based preparations (alpine yarrow, camomile, nettles, oak-bark,
dandelion, and valerian) made to Dr. Steiner’s own recipes. The aim of this is to encourage the correct
development of the processes involved in the decomposition and metamorphosis of the compost. Two home-
produced preparations are applied directly to the fields.
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PART I – LEVEL 2
One of these contains small quantities of humus and cow dung to stimulate the soil’s life-giving processes; and
the other contains finely-ground quartz to strengthen the plants, increase their assimilative powers and ability to
photosynthesise, and also to increase their resistance to disease. Where sowing and planting are concerned,
cosmic forces should be studied, in particular the position of the moon and the planets, since these are considered
to influence the earth and the crops. Therefore a seeding calendar should be drawn up every year, so that the
farmer can make the best use of favourable planetary and astrological influences and avoid unfavourable ones.
PermacultureThe term "permaculture" was coined in 1975 by Bill Mollison, an Australian. It derives from combining
two words - permanent and agriculture - in order to suggest a global and holistic approach to farming. The various
constituent elements of any given area are consciously arranged so as to promote mutually beneficial
relationships. The aim is to work towards a natural ecosystem in which need for man to intervene with energy and
labour is progressively reduced as the system becomes more stable, lasting, and - eventually - permanent.
The permaculture method envisages year-round crop-growing, together with farming methods and
activities that consume small amounts of energy in the most efficient way possible. The method is intended to
appeal to small groups or communities that care about the planet’s future, and it is concerned more with self-
sufficiency in food than with producing food for commercial purposes.
The underlying principles of this philosophy are:
small-scale exploitation of the land;
•growing a broad variety of crops rather than just large quantities of one crop;
•growing perennial rather than annual crops;
•the virtue of a broad variety of animal and vegetable species, crops, microclimates and habitats;
•thinking long-term, with future generations in mind;
•growing local species, since these are well adapted to the soil and the climate; (not hybrids, which are weak,
expensive, and unable to adapt);
•the inclusion of all the constituent elements of the system in a mutually beneficial network of working
relationships: people, plants, animals, sun, wind, water, buildings, land;
•showing particular concern for so-called marginal or unproductive areas: land that is steep, rocky, arid, or marshy.
MODULE 3
PART I – LEVEL 2
The permaculture method aims to anticipate the effects of the important climactic changes that are taking place,
and maintains that plants have a moderating influence on the climate and are able to reduce its harshness. Variety
and ecodiversity are seen as an insurance policy against fire, drought, wind, or heavy rainfall. The structural and
functional variety of plants increases the number of microclimates, which in their turn create favourable conditions
for a larger variety of useful plants; thus plants create better conditions for both man and animals - a typical
example of positive interaction as envisaged by the permaculture approach.
The zero-tillage system
This system is based on the principle of minimum interference with the workings of nature. It was developed in
Japan by Masanobu Fukuoka, and is influenced by the philosophical and religious precepts of Zen Buddhism and
Taoism.
There are four basic principles that should govern man’s relationship with the earth:
Not to break up the earth in any way, since roots, insects, and microorganism break it up in any case;
Not to use fertilisers, since they damage the quality of the soil. Conventional agricultural practices undermine
the qualitative and quantitative relationships that exist in the ground, thereby making it vulnerable and at the same
time creating a need for fertilisers. The zero breakup method enables the soil to maintain itself and provide itself
with fertilisers through its own natural cycles and those of the animal and vegetable life that it hosts.
Not to use chemical products, since they weaken plants. Once a plant is prone to disease, insects become a
threat. The danger of disease is always present, but it strikes only when the environment has lost its natural
equilibrium. Nature is capable of maintaining a perfect equilibrium by herself, and a healthy environment wards off
disease.
Not to remove weeds, since they have always been part of a living ecological structure. Weeds that grow
naturally are extremely strong and encourage all forms of life; so it is a basic principle of natural agriculture that
they should be left alone.
MODULE 3
PART I – LEVEL 2
When a farmer first adopts natural methods of agriculture, the land will need a few years to recover its
lost vitality; the crop from land that has been over-exposed to fertilisers will initially be between 10 and 15%
smaller than before. In order to practise this method, a farmer must have a thorough knowledge and
understanding of nature, plants, water, the land and the surrounding area.
The zero breakup method does not envisage leaving these things entirely to themselves. It envisages
presiding over them with the wisdom that derives from an understanding of the way the universe is ordered,
making a minimum use of artificial human labour, and allowing the plants to live unaided and unmolested.
Organic farming, apart from specific kinds, is based on multiple choices: vision, motivation, knowledge,
entrepreneurship attitudes, feeling with organic farming, technical competences and means. Therefore to become
an organic farmer means also to share a vision in harmony with principles of sustainability and land protection
(see Figure 1).
Figure 1 – Factors that affect the adoption of organic farming.
MODULE 3
PART I – LEVEL 2
MODULE 3.2 General rules and overview for organic farming and food.
3.2.1 EU REGULATIONS AND POLICIES ON ORGANIC FARMING.
The approval by the European Council of Regulation 2092/91 marked a vital step towards the official
recognition of organic farming methods throughout Europe. This Regulation had set out the basic principles of the
method, as well as rules governing the processing, sale, and importation of organically produced goods. The
Regulation CE 834/2007 updated the previous one, also focusing on biodiversity, animal welfare and
environmental issues: “Organic production is an overall system of farm management and food production that
combines best environmental practices, a high level of biodiversity, the preservation of natural resources, the
application of high animal welfare standards and a production method in line with the preference of certain
consumers for products produced using natural substances and processes. The organic production method thus
plays a dual societal role, where it on the one hand provides for a specific market responding to a consumer
demand for organic products, and on the other hand delivers public goods contributing to the protection of the
environment and animal welfare, as well as to rural development.”
The “Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 of 28 June 2007 on organic production and labelling of
organic products and repealing Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91” is intended to mark the formal recognition of the
sector and to lay down norms to be respected by all those wishing to be considered as part of it. The intention is
also to enable consumers to clearly identify organically produced food without any risk of error; thus putting an
end to a series of fraudulent claims made by producers. The new label, clearly distinguished by the previous one,
similar to those identifying the protected European quality products, PGI, PDO and TSG, aims also to avoid any
confusion with other non organic products.
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PART I – LEVEL 2
Throughout the European Union, the term "organic" on food labels and advertisements for foodstuffs
and agricultural produce can only be used for items produced in accordance with the Regulation’s rules
concerning production and processing methods. The special legally defined status thus attached to the term
"organic" in English, applies correspondingly to the term "biological" in Italian, French, Greek, Dutch and
Portuguese, and to "ecological" in Spanish, Danish and German.
It is worth pointing out the Regulation EC 834/2007, as already before the Regulation EEC 2092/91
expressly forbids the use of the term "organic" (or "biological" / "ecological") for products, since the term can only
be used to refer to the method. This is not an idle distinction, since whilst all agricultural produce is necessarily
organic (or biological / ecological), the method can only be referred to as "organic" (or "biological" / "ecological")
when it rigorously respects certain defined criteria of production, for example: the non-use of chemical products;
the use of animal manures as fertilisers; and parasite control through the use of predator insects.
The Regulation therefore defines a method or process, and not a product.
Regulation 2092/91 was applicable only to unprocessed vegetable produce (fruit, vegetables, cereals,
etc.) and to products for human consumption that contain mainly ingredients of vegetable origin, whilst Regulation
1807/99 was referred to livestock production.
On July 20, 2007, the new Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 of 28 June 2007 on organic
production and labelling of organic products and repealing Regulation (EEC) No 2092/91. The Commission
subsequently adopted implementing regulations: Commission Regulation (EC) No 889/2008 completed the
standards with detailed production rules, labelling rules and control requirements and Commission Regulation
(EC) No 1235/2008 implemented the new import regime. All the new regulations came into force on January 1,
2009. The regulations guarantees that terms such as organic, bio and eco are only used on food products that are
produced according to the standards laid down in the regulation. One of the key developments of the European
organic sector in 2010 was the launch of the new EU logo for organic products. Since July 1, 2010, the organic
logo of the EU (see Figure 2) has been obligatory on all pre-packaged organic products that have been produced
in all EU member states and meet the necessary standards.
MODULE 3
PART I – LEVEL 2
Figure 2 - Logo of the EU for organic agriculture and food since July 1 , 2010
Another important reference for organic producers is the 2005 version of the
“IFOAM Norms for Organic Production and Processing” including basic standards and
accreditation criteria according to the International Federation of Organic Agriculture
Movements. The EC regulations are more careful to satisfaction and guarantee of
consumers, whilst the IFOAM norms have a more complete and adequate cognitive
approach to satisfy knowledge and competences needed by producers.
Production methods
The fertility and the biological processes of the soil must be ensured by the following methods:
growing leguminous plants and plants with deep roots, and ploughing-in leguminous plants, whilst at the same
time adopting crop-rotation over a cycle lasting several years; and enriching the soil with organic matter
(composted or not) produced by farms that comply with the regulations governing the organic method. Certain by-
products from livestock breeding (animal manure) can be used, provided that they come from livestock bred
according to an organic method that complies with the national regulations in force.
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PART I – LEVEL 2
If the above steps are not sufficient to ensure adequate nutrition for the crops being grown in rotation,
or if they do not result in the soil having a suitable balance of minerals, so that supplements are deemed to be
necessary, then it is allowed to use a limited number of organic manures or natural minerals with low solubility.
Approved substances for plants and plant production are listed in Annex2 of the Regulation 2092/91, also
including fertilizers and soil conditioners in Annex II A. Some differences between EU Member States depend on
specific permitted substances. IFOAM proposes periodic inputs evaluation for amendments to Annex II of the
regulation 2092/91. A new frontier is constituted of the so called bio-based products, from agriculture and forestry
raw fibres to produce intermediate and chemical products with low degree of toxicity, high environmental
sustainability and biodegradability, improved Life Cycle Assessment index and low carbon footprint (see REACH,
Registration, Evaluation, Authorization and Restriction of Chemicals, regulation EC 1907/2006, entered into force
on 1st June 2007).
Parasite control, protection from disease, as well as the elimination of weeds, should be effected by a
range of methods aimed at avoiding the need to use insecticides. This involves: choosing species and varieties of
plant that are naturally resistant; appropriate crop-rotation; weed-removal by burning; and protecting the natural
enemies of parasites. Only if the crops are in immediate danger is the farmer allowed to use a limited number of
plant treatment products. These are listed in Appendix IIB of Regulation 2092/91.The Regulation allows for a so
called conversion or transition period, this being the time necessary to make the change from conventional
agricultural methods to organic ones.
This involves a minimum period of two years (before the seeding) for annual crops, and three years
(before the first harvest) for (perennial) trees. Depending on the use that was previously made of the land, the
conversion period can be shortened or extended. The conversion period and the restrictions relating to the sale of
crops grown in it, do not apply to farmers who have used organic methods for at least two years. Organic food-
treatment and processing must obviously comply with current EU rules, or, where these do not exist, with the
relevant national laws. It should be emphasised that the new Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007, as well as
before the Regulation 2092/91, forbids ionizing radiation treatment at any stage of the organic method of food
production. Genetically modified organisms (GMO) that could be legitimately used, if authorized by the European
Food Safety Authority, on the basis of the “precaution principle”, as part of conventional food-production
processes, cannot currently be used at any stage of the organic method of food-production.
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PART I – LEVEL 2
Many farmers want to see quick results and often ask how long it takes for organic crops to grow. Organic farming
does not aim to make crops grow faster. Crops will grow faster and larger when they have better growing
conditions than before. Although conventionally grown crops can be made to grow faster by intensive use of
synthetic fertilizers and sprays, organic crops are nurtured to grow at their normal, natural rate in order to be less
susceptible to pests and diseases and build up good physical and nutritional structure. However, organic farmers
do a lot to make their crops grow healthy and to produce good yields.
Avoiding contamination
It is in the responsibility of organic farmers to protect the organic fields from being sprayed with synthetic
pesticides. Even if the neighbour is not farming organically, an organic farmer can grow organic foods and fibres.
To avoid pesticide drift from neighbouring fields onto the crops, organic farmers should safeguard the organic
fields by using any of the following measures:
Planting of natural hedges on the boundary to neighbouring fields can avoid the risk of pesticide spray drift
through wind or run-off water. The wider the border area around the fields, the better.
To avoid runoff from upstream fields, organic farmers should divert the water away or talk to the farmers
upstream about how to work together to minimize the risk of contamination through water.
Organic farmers who are interested in saving nature, should share their knowledge
and experiences with neighbours with the aim of helping them to either adopt organic
farming practices or to minimize the risk of contaminating nature.
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PART I – LEVEL 2
Avoiding contamination
A specific focus has to be put on contamination risks from Genetically Modified Organisms (GMO).
Genetically modified seeds and planting materials are produced by transferring isolated genes from plants,
animals or microorganisms into the crop genome, circumventing pollination and crossing natural barriers. This is
seen as a violation of the integrity of the cell as the smallest living entity and is not accepted in organic farming.
Genetically modified products should, therefore, not be used in organic farming, and organic farmers should
protect their production against any GMO contamination. However, with the increased use of GM crops in the
conventional farming systems, the risk of GMO contamination is expected to increase. Species which cross-
pollinate, such as rapeseed or maize, or insect pollinated crops, such as soybean or cotton, are at a higher risk of
being contaminated by a nearby genetically modified crop. Species that are mainly vegetative pollinated such as
potatoes, cassava or banana are at lower risk of GMO contamination. Besides the genetic contamination, there is
also a risk of physical contamination caused by GMO residues along the production and market chain, if GMO and
organic products are not properly separated.
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Crops to grow during conversion
Looking at the organic farm as being ‘one organism’, the focus does not lie on cultivating specific crops only.
Rather, the focus is on choosing crops that can easily be integrated into the existing farming system and will
contribute to its improvement. But the choice also depends on the farmer’s knowledge on the right management of
the crops, their contribution to a diverse family diet or their demand in the market. Besides growing crops for food,
farmers may need to grow leguminous cover crops to provide high-protein feed for livestock and to be used as
green manures to feed the soil. Planting trees for shade, as windbreak, for firewood, feed, mulching material or for
other uses, can be recommended in most situations. Criteria for crop selection during conversion:
In a first place organic farmers should grow enough food for their family. But they may also want to grow crops
for the market to get money for other family needs. The farmers should also grow crops that contribute to
improvement of soil fertility. Farmers who keep livestock need to grow pasture grass and legumes.
Basically, farmers should select crops with low risk of failure. Cereals and legumes such as maize, sorghum,
millet, beans and peas are especially suitable for conversion, since they cost little to produce, generally have
moderate nutrient demands and are robust against pests and diseases. In addition, many of the traditional crops
can be stored and sold in domestic markets. High-value short term crops, such as most vegetables, are more
delicate to grow and highly susceptible to pest and disease attack. Therefore, they should not be grown on a
larger scale, unless the farmer can endure some losses in harvest.
The crops to grow for sale should include crops that can be sold at the farm gate, at the roadside market or can
be transported directly to nearby markets in urban centres. Choosing the right crop to sell on the market may
require some market information. Decision making for crops for local or export markets requires detailed
information from traders or exporters on the crops, requested varieties, quantities, qualities and season..
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Crops to grow during conversion
High-value perennial crops such as fruit trees take at least 3 years until the first harvest from the date of
planting. This makes them appropriate crops for the conversion period. For new plantations, species and varieties
must be carefully selected to suit the organic market and production requirements. For conversion of an existing
orchard, it might be necessary to replace old existing varieties, if they are very susceptible to diseases and the
product quality does not match with the market requirements.
The success of a crop will also depend on provision of favourable growing conditions. The better a crop variety
matches local soil and climate conditions, and is tolerant or resistant to common pests and diseases, the better it
will grow.
Planting of hedges and agro-forestry trees can be valuable to help establish a diverse farming system.
Growing leguminous green manures provides nutrients to the soil. Green manures do not provide immediate
income, but in the long-term, they make the soil fertile and productive for the future..
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Recommendations to farmers for reducing the GMO contamination risk:
o Use either personally selected seeds or get organic or untreated seeds that were not genetically modified from
neighbouring farmers you and are certain do not use GMO seeds and are not surrounded by GM crops of
conventional farmers (distance of at least 1 km). If you use seeds from a trader, make sure that he is registered
and can confirm where the seed is derived from. Check that he is not involved in GM production and
multiplication. Ask your trader for a certificate confirming GM free seeds and inquire about the trader’s involvement
in the GM-seed market.
o Check for the breeding habits of the specific crops you are interested in. Most cross breeding species such as
maize can disperse by wind or bees to distances of up to 1 to 3 km.
o Seeds of some crops can survive for 5 to 20 years in the soil. Therefore, precautions must be taken that no GM
crops have been planted on land that shall be used for organic production.
o Create protective safety (buffer) zones around your fields to reduce the risk of GMO pollen dispersal, if GM
crops are cultivated in this region. Isolation distances between GM crops and organic fields should be established,
about 2-3 times larger than those required for seed production for a given species. For dispersal of critical GM
crops such as maize, the isolation distance should probably not be less than 2 to 3 km. This will reduce GMO
dispersal by pollen to a great extent. For wind pollinated crops, like maize, borders or hedges with tall plant
species, such as sugarcane or trees, can additionally prevent cross-pollination with GM crops.
o Avoid any physical GM contamination by using sowing and harvesting machines, transporters, processing and
storage facilities not used for GM crops. In case you have to use the same machines, thorough cleaning is
necessary. Do not store organic products next to GM products.
o GMO free regions should be encouraged wherever possible, especially for own seed production.
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Recommendations to farmers for reducing the GMO contamination risk:
The conversion process for organic certification
From the point of view of certification, the period of conversion starts when a farmer manages his farm in
accordance with the organic regulations. This starts when a farmer renounces use of synthetic pesticides,
fertilizers and GMO or treated seeds. Stepwise reduction of agrochemicals cannot be considered part of the
conversion period. An important step of the conversion period is the recognition of the farm as organic by a
certification body.
The conversion period is accomplished after the third year or third harvest is certified as organic. Nevertheless,
even if the formal conversion period is accomplished, the adaptation of the farm is not finished. It usually takes
several years to establish a well-balanced farm ecosystem and restore natural soil fertility. According to the basic
regulations of IFOAM, the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, the entire farm must be
managed organically.
This is true for all private organic labels as well. Whereas most governmental regulations allow farmers to certify a
part of the farm as organic and still manage the rest of the farm conventionally. Such separation, however,
involves risks and, therefore, also some restrictions and constraints.
Generally, for small farms, only conversion of the entire farm can be recommended, as the farm unit would
become too small to enable establishment of a diverse production system, allow proper crop rotation and
introduction of livestock.
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The procedure of inspection and certification.Once a farmer or a farmer group has taken the decision to convert his or their farm(s), the farmer or
the farmer group can take the first step towards certification by contacting the certification body and asking for
information on the certification procedure, the costs and the subscription forms for certification. This can happen at
any time of the year. The contact between the farmer and the certification body may also be established through
an agricultural adviser. Following the farmer’s contact, the certification company will give the farmer the application
forms for starting the official conversion process, and the organic regulation manual to make sure that the farmer
has all information available on the requirements of organic agriculture. The farmer is then asked to get familiar
with the regulations and sign the application. Together with the application, the farmer provides detailed
information about the farm to be certified.
Based on the forms, the certification body sets up a contract and forwards it to the farmer. The farmer
signs the contract, declaring commitment to comply with organic regulations and the conditions of the certification
procedure including the annual visit, the duty of record keeping and payment of certification fees.
The conversion can start at 1st of January or during the year when the crop season starts (for example
flowering of fruit trees or soil preparation for vegetable crops). When converting, the farmer must start keeping
records, such as purchase and application of inputs (fertilizers, pest and disease management agents, seeds) as
well as marketing of products. The records will serve as one of the references on crop and animal husbandry for
certification.
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The procedure of inspection and certification.
Every year the farm is inspected by an inspection officer or by a member of the participatory control system.
During inspection, the farmer informs the officer about the management of the crops and of livestock and his or
her successes and failures. The officer consults the records and takes a look at the fields and the stables.
Inspection also includes an estimation of the risk of contamination of the farm through synthetic pesticides and
GMO from neighbouring fields. In case products are transformed on the farm, the procedures will also be
discussed. The more open and honest the communication by the farmer is, the better any possible
misunderstandings can be avoided. Based on the farm-visit the inspection officer writes the inspection report and
forwards it to the certifiers for analysis and final certification decision. If the farm complies with the organic
regulations, the farmer receives the certificate, if necessary with additional recommendations for the management.
In case of non-compliance with requirements, for example, following the use of synthetic pesticides, the certifier is
not authorized to issue a certificate.
With the certificate, the farmer may now sell his products as organic in conversion during the first 2-3 years. After
the third year only, the farmer can sell his products as full organic.
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Organic seed requirements for certificationFor organic certification according to most standards, farmers are required to use only organic seed and planting
materials, if available. If organic seed and planting materials are not commercially available, the following options
(in order of preference) may be permitted with documentation that organic seed is not available:
Seed grown only with substances in accordance with organic standards (can be from fields under conversion).
Untreated seed and planting stock from neighbours or group members.
Non-organic seed for perennial plants may be used. Perennial plants or crops must be managed organically for
at least 12 months before harvest or sale as organic, but the original plants need not be organic.
Arrangements in brief for control and inspectionPeople or companies who, as part of a commercial activity, produce, process, or import from another country
foodstuffs or agricultural produce that are sold as "organic", must notify this fact to the appropriate authority or
authorities of the Member State under whose jurisdiction they fall; and furthermore, they must make their
operations available for inspection by the authority or authorities appointed by the Member State. The Member
State may nominate one or more bodies from the public or private sectors to act as its appointed inspectors. And a
separate body appointed by the Member State is specifically responsible for ensuring, via its own inspections, that
the appointed inspectors are carrying out their duties in a fair and proper way.
Organically produced food can only be sold as such if it has been checked and certified by the Member State’s
inspectors.
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Arrangements in brief for control and inspectionThe methods and criteria of the inspections are specified in EU regulations, and adapted from those
set out in detail in Appendix III of Regulation No 2092/91, on the Regulations EC 834/2007 and 889/2008, also
including labelling rules.
When the farm is first inspected, the inspector submits a full description of it to the authority he
represents. After that, it is the farmer’s duty every year to notify the authority of his crop-growing programme for
every plot of land. The farmer must keep a detailed record of the products he buys and the farm produce he sells,
specifying quantity, exact nature, and origin or destination.
If a farm uses organic and conventional methods contemporaneously, there must be a rigorous
separation between the cultivated areas and the storage spaces set aside for each method. It is not allowed to
grow the same variety of crop using both methods. During the inspection of such a farm, the inspector will
consider it as a whole, and will look at every part of it, including the part where conventional agriculture is
practised. If the inspector should find any breach of regulations, the authority should withdraw the farmer’s right to
make any reference to organic farming methods, either with regard to the whole crop, or to that part of it that is
affected by the breach. In the event of blatant breaches, or those having long-term effects, the authority can ban
the farmer from making any reference, for a specified length of time, to the organic process in connection with the
crops grows and/or sells. Each Member State organises the arrangements for control and inspection in its own
national territory.
.
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Labelling of organically produced foodstuffs
EU legislation lays down very precise rules concerning the labelling and advertising of organically produced
foodstuffs. This is intended to put an end to a state of affairs that until recently was highly ambiguous and tended
to leave the consumer confused or annoyed. Regulation 2092/91 created various categories of produce
according to the proportion of organically produced ingredients that each category contains. The new Regulation
EC No 834/2007 also maintains the same categories and proportion. This proportion is expressed as a
percentage.
Only two types of product can be sold with labelling that refers to the organic method of production. These are: i)
unprocessed organically-produced (vegetable) agricultural produce and ii) processed products containing over
95% of ingredients defined as produced by organic methods. This last category can contain a maximum of 5% of
ingredients produced by conventional farming methods, provided that such ingredients are not available, or are
available in insufficient quantities in organic form on the EU market (i.e. exotic fruit, specific natural flavours,
products of hunting and fishing, ingredients added for specific nutrition purposes,..). If the producer wishes, the
labelling for this category can also state that the product conforms to EU organic farming standards. USA and EU
have agreed an “equivalence arrangement”, taking effect on 1st June 2012, by recognising that organic products
certified to the USDA organic or European Union (EU) organic standards may be sold and labelled as organic in
both the U.S. and the EU. It is also foreseen in order to facilitating trade between the two largest markets in the
world, collaboration programs to promote organic agriculture, protect organic integrity and share technical
information and best practices.
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Incentives to convert to organic farming
A measure of the interest shown by many Member States in organic methods of farming, is the fact
that they encouraged farmers to adopt them even before the approval of Regulation 2078/92 on agricultural
environmental measures.
The first Member State to introduce financial incentives for organic farming was Denmark, which set
up a scheme to encourage consulting, information, and marketing services; farms were also eligible for direct
grants and subsidies during the conversion period. Since then also other EU countries introduced grants and
subsidies to stimulate the conversion to organic farming, contributing to enlarge the organic farmers’ movement.
Amongst EU countries, Germany was the first to introduce, in 1989, a conversion programme to
organic farming as part of the European Community’s general agricultural policy. The German programme set out
mainly to reduce agricultural output, and did not contain any stated environmental aims. Financial aid made
available for conversion to organic farming was DM 425 per hectare per year for crops of which there was a
surplus, and DM 300 for other crops. The subsidies lasted for a period of five years. (Lampkin, 1996).
The approval of EC Regulation 2078/92 marked the Community’s commitment to finance and promote
environmentally-friendly methods of production in the agricultural sector. The Regulation included a range of
measures which together tended to reduce the quantity of agricultural produce, to protect the rural landscape, and
to save endangered plant and animal species.
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Incentives to convert to organic farming
Specifically, the measures were as follows:
• to reduce the use of chemical products on farms, and to promote organic farming methods
• to discourage all forms of intensive farming
• to reduce the density of the sheep and goat population
• to encourage the introduction of a range of environmentally-friendly practices, including the protection the
landscape and the breeding of endangered animal species
• to protect abandoned farm- and forest-land
• 20-year set-aside in order to allow it to regain its vitality
• to manage land with an eye to public access and recreational uses
• to offer training and to promote public awareness
Most Member States have concentrated their energy on the first and last of these measures.
Furthermore, most Member States have granted aids and subsidies both to existing organic farms and to those
wishing to convert to organic methods and some of them have set up networks to provide consumers with
information and technical advice. Arrangements for control and inspection are not financed by the EU, but some
Member Countries have made funds available for these purposes. The new Agro-environment measures included
in the Rural Development Plans 2007/2013 are addressed to at least one of two broad objectives, reducing
environmental risks associated with modern farming on the one hand, and preserving nature and cultivated
landscapes on the other hand. France, Britain, Greece, and some of the German Länder have decided just to
offer financial help during the conversion period.
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1.2.2 ECONOMIC IMPACT OF ORGANIC FARMING IN EUROPE
Global turnover in organic food was almost 55 billion US dollars or approximately 40 billion Euros in 2009 (Sahota
2011). About one quarter of the world’s organic agricultural land, estimated 37.2 million hectares in total, is in
Europe, which accounts for 9.2 million hectares (Willer & Kilcher 2011). Since the beginning of the 1990s, organic
farming has rapidly developed in almost all European countries (European Commission 2010). In Europe,
currently more than nine million hectares are managed organically by more than 260,000 producers (2009, see
Table 1). In the European Union there were 8.3 million hectares in 2008 dedicated to organic farming, constituting
4.7 percent of the European whole agricultural land. They were managed organically by almost 220, 000
producers (Willer & Kilcher 2011). Between 2008 and 2009, the organic agricultural land in Europe increased by
almost 1 million hectares (see Figure 1). The increase is due to high growth rates in Turkey, Spain, Italy and
France. In recent years, growth rates were higher in the new member states compared to those in the EU 15. The
country with the largest organic agricultural land area in 2010 was Spain with 1,456,672 hectares, followed by Italy
with 1,113,742 hectares, Germany with 990,702 hectares, France with 845,442 hectares and United Kingdom with
699,638 (see Figure 3). Italy is the country in Europe with the highest number of producers (41,807 producers).
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The European market for organic food and drink
In 2010, the EU organic food and drink market (general retails sales, specialised shops, farm gates sales etc.)
was estimated to value approximately 18,400 million euro. The largest market is Germany with approximately 6
billion € (2010), followed by France (approx. 3,4 billion €), and the UK (approx. 2 billion €). Denmark, Austria and
Switzerland account for the highest market shares with more than five percent of the total food and drink market.
While land area under organic management has expanded rapidly in many new EU member states as well as in
candidate and potential EU candidate countries, consumption levels have remained low in these countries (less
than 1 percent). Whereas 2009 was characterised by slower growth than the previous years, with stagnation in
some countries, the situation has changed in 2010 with organic products showing notable increases in sales
again, which can be related to the improvement of economic conditions in general. In 2010 prices rose
considerably in the second half of the year after a lower harvest of many crops, so it is likely that the limiting factor
for market growth could again be supply. Overall it is estimated that market development in 2010 across Europe
resulted in single digit growth rate for sales values and a bigger growth rate for the sales volumes. For 2011
market actors expect ongoing mainly single-digit growth of the organic market in many countries.
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The European market for organic food and drink
Action plans for organic food and farming
Organic action plans provide a framework for integrating policies and measures in order to encourage organic
sector development. Thus action plans serve as a strategic instrument for governments to achieve policy goals,
particularly when multiple policy areas (such as agriculture, environment, and trade) and different levels of policy
formulation are to be integrated (Schmid & al. 2008). According to a recent survey at least 26 countries or regions
in Europe have an action plan (Gonzálvez 2011), many of them with quantitative targets. Austria for instance
aimed to have 20% organic land by 2010. This goal was almost achieved: the country had a 19.5% share of
organic land in 2010. In 2004 the European Action Plan for Organic Food and Farming was launched. The
information campaign proposed in the plan started in July 2008. With this campaign, Action 1 - a multi-annual EU
wide information and promotion campaign to inform consumers, public institutions' canteens, schools and other
key actors is implemented.
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PART I – LEVEL 2 TEST
Module 3 - Tests and assignments
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS
What is IFOAM?
a. International standard for organic farming
b. International association of organic associations and movements
c. International financial system for small and medium enterprises
What is biodynamic agriculture?
a. Farming approach based on the principle that all organic substances are to be put back into the natural
system
b. Technological approach based on intensive use of agricultural machineries
c. Kind of farming based on use of GMOs (Genetically Modified Organisms)
Question 1
Question 2
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What is permaculture?
a. Kind of farming based on permanent cultivations
b. Cultural approach based on primitive and old fashioned farming
c. Method for sustainable energy saving farming aiming at a slow decrease of human intervention
What is crop rotation?
a. Intensive cultivation method permitting quick and extra-seasonal replacement of crops
b. Farming technique based on rotating crops with high nitrogen needs with those returning it to the soil
c. Alternative use of GMO, conventional and organic seeds
Question 3
Question 4
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PART I – LEVEL 2 TEST
What is biodiversity?
a. Variety of living organisms (crops, animals, spontaneous plants,..) inhabiting an area
b. Proliferation of bacteria
c. Method to analyze and select seeds for crops
What is the Council Regulation (EC) No 834/2007 of 28 June?
a. EU Regulation on organic farming updating the Regulation 2092/91
b. EU Regulation on agricultural environmental measures
c. EU Regulation on CAP subsidies
Question 5
Question 6
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What is the conversion process to organic farming?
a. Charter of principles listing all the procedures for organic farming
b. Farming based on intensive land use
c. Transition process to manage a farm by adopting organic farming practices and organic standards
What is the Council Regulation (EC) No 889/2008?
a. EU Regulation on farming best practices
b. EU Regulation on organic standards including labelling rules and control requirements
c. EU Regulation on incentives for conversion to organic farming
Question 7
Question 8
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What are the organic action plans?
a. Development plans for EU rural areas
b. EU regional plans to favour coexistence of conventional and organic farming
c. EU initiatives to develop the organic food market, improve transparency and consumer confidence
What is the largest national organic market in Europe?
a. Switzerland
b. Italy
c. Germany
Question 9
Question 10
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SOLUTIONS
1)b
2)a
3)c
4)b
5)a
6)a
7)c
8)b
9)c
10)c
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MODULE 3.3 Organic crops
3.3.1. RGANIC FARMING AND SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE
One of the basic differences between conventional and organic agriculture lies in the differing views of
how plants are supplied with minerals. The so called principle of input-output was explained by Liebig in one of his
most important works, “The Application of the chemistry in Agriculture and Physiology": “If a farmer wants to be
sure of a long-term high yield he must make sure to replace the nutrients which are lacking in stable manure from
other sources, as the amount of these substances contained in the fields is very limited … if the farmer does not
ensure their replacement the time will inevitably come when any field is no longer able to produce crops" (Liebig
1865).
In organic farming the crops are sustained by the soil, from which they extract the nutrients, making
the soil, together with the climate, the two conditions which must be taken into consideration. In such a system the
soil is considered a fragile element that must be cared for and protected to assure its long-term productivity and
stability. Soil fertility is a general concept expressing soil capacity to allow growth and production of plants. This
concept in organic farming, since the EEC Regulation 2092/91 as well as in Regulations EC 834/2007 and
889/2008, means that soil fertility has to be maintained by bringing organic substances, instead of synthetic
chemical fertilizers. This entails that in order to maintain and improve the productivity of the soil the following
agricultural practices should be carried out:
Reduction of tilling
Adequate management of watering in order to reduce the erosion and the resulting loss of soil through drag.
Maintenance of vegetable cover or crop remains on the soil to diminish the erosion processes.
Addition of organic material by means of compost, manure or burying green crops (i.e. leguminous plants).
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3.3.2 FERTILITY OF THE SOIL AND CHOICE OF CROPS
Soil is the most important resource for the ecological farmer. By managing it efficiently it can remain in an
adequate state from a productive point of view as well as from the viewpoint of the fertility of the soil. In 6 you can
see the main factors that affect the fertility of the soil. Given that in ecological production synthetic fertilisers may
not be used, the maintenance of the fertility in organic production systems is based on:
Crop rotation.
Burying cover crops and straw.
Composting vegetable and animal residues.
Maximum recycling of nutrients.
Maintenance of the soil structure.
Use of crops that fix nitrogen.
Figure : Factors that affect the fertility of the soil
Even though it is not the aim of this paragraph, it is of interest to note that water is at present, and will be even
more so in the future, the main limiting factor in agricultural production, therefore its correct use and preservation
is fundamental for organic production and for agricultural sustainability. The management of water in this context
must consider the following actions:
Improving the means of its preservation
The use of species and varieties that are tolerant of drought
The use of watering systems of reduced volume
A correct manipulation of the crops and their watering in order to reduce the loss of water through evaporation
and run-off
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General principles for choosing crops
When one chooses a type of ecological production it is important to take the following points into consideration:
The destiny of highly specialised quality markets
To choose varieties capable of competing favourably with the weeds
To choose varieties which have a good resistance to common diseases
To choose early varieties in areas where the production is late to allow the reduction of the number of
phytosanitary treatments
To cultivate a determined amount of varieties sequentially in order to get successive staggered harvests To
optimise the use of labour and a longer period of time on the market
To take into account the effect of both the crops that came before and those that will come after when deciding
on the rotation
Factors determining the choice of crop
The factors which should be considered and condition type of crop to choose are:
The situation of the farm and its proximity to the destination markets
The demands of the market
The type of soil
The farm specific characteristics
A correct crop rotation is a strong point for an efficient organic agriculture.
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Rotation
Crop rotation, as a basis of organic crops and vegetable production, allows biodiversity to be introduced
throughout the duration of the rotation. It is indispensable to maintain the fertility of the soil and to avoid
phytosanitary problems derived from the reiterative cultivation of just one species. It also allows:
To re-establish the fertility of the soil.
The use of crops with different root structures that allow the soil to maintain its structure while exploring different
layers.
To introduce alternatively crops that fix the nitrogen (clover, alfalfa) with others that require it (cereals).
To prevent damage due to erosion (on and under the surface) by maintaining the soil covered with a vegetable
covering for as long as possible throughout the year. This also includes green manure and the sowing of cover
crops.
To provide a wide range of possibilities for weed control. To include the so-called cleaning crops, such as those
which are grown for their roots, meaning that weed control can be easily carried out.
To minimise the effect of plagues and diseases.
To include species from different families with the aim of preventing plagues and diseases that are resident in
the soil.
To diminish the effect of operations on the crops by carrying them out with tools and at different times of the
year for the different crops.
To reduce the risks associated with the deficient behaviour of a determined crop.
To provide a better use of investments in machinery and equipment.
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The distribution of different rotation of crops
Organic rotations, especially in humid climates, are based, at least for 3 or 4 years, on vegetable cover of
herbaceous/clover meadows. From time to time and for short periods the rotation includes grazing crops.
The cover crops include pulses, which synthesise nitrogen and provide food for animals whose excrements are
recycled.
This also offers the chance to reduce weeds, plagues and diseases. In organic production livestock is the ideal
complement to agricultural crops, due to the permanent recycling of nutrients and organic matter.
When establishing the rotations the following points should be considered:
Their economic viability
The pedological-climatic adaptation of the different crops
The level of technical knowledge
The availability of suitable machinery
Factors to take into consideration in the crop model
Susceptibility of the different crops to plagues and diseases
The reaction of the crops to the residual fertility (from previous crops)
The requirements of the crops in manure (organic material)
The economic viability of the rotations
The climatic adaptation of the different crops
The availability of experts in organic production and of machinery
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Satisfaction of the nutritional requirements
You should choose the adequate place for each species in the rotation, bearing in mind that the fertility of the soil is
high after a meadow crop (grass-clover) which will give a good result for crops such as cereals or potatoes,
therefore different vegetable crops should come after meadow crops. The use of organic correctors is essential
given that they provide nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium, but in different quantities and in different ratios. In
addition they improve the structure of the soil, increase the capacity for retaining nutrients by means of the humic
compound, as well as water.
Correctors or green manure (roots or forage) should be applied to the crops that extract high quantities of nutrients.
The residual fertility of the forage is best taken advantage of when it is used as a cover or green manure as a
previous crop. Some crops, as for example leaves of cruciferous plants, have high nutritional needs.
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Micro-elements
There are a determined amount of other nutrients that are required by crops in small quantities (kg or g per ha)
which are known as microelements and include, amongst others things, iron, sodium, chlorine, selenium, cobalt,
manganese, copper, zinc, boron, iodine, silicon and molybdenum. The majority of these are available for the
plants in organic production, but under some circumstances there can be deficiencies, such as, for example, when
the pH of the soil is high. They are heavy metals and in excessive quantities they can be phytotoxic.
Important nutrients
These are required in hundreds of kg per ha. Three of them (carbon, hydrogen and oxygen) can be found in the
atmosphere, three more (nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium) must be added to the crops and the three
remaining ones (magnesium, calcium and sulphur) are usually found in sufficient amounts in the soil.
The availability of the different nutrients in the soil depends largely on the pH of the soil, as can be seen in figure
5. A pH of between 5.7 and 6.2 is normally acceptable for grazing land, depending on the species that make it up
and the arable crops introduced in the rotation. On the other hand alfalfa needs, for its optimum development,
lightly basic soil.
Figure 5:
Availability of nutrients according to the pH level
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3.3.3 PLANT NUTRITION AND TECHNIQUES IN ORGANIC FARMING
The nutrition of crops which are produced ecologically should be based on a system that is as close as
possible to sustainability from the point of view of the nutrients, in other words the largest possible amount of
mineral elements extracted from the soil return to it. As is logical, crops are extractions that are not revertible so
the recycling is not total but it is more efficient than in the case of conventional farming. In order to compensate
the balance of nutrients in the soil at least two nutrients must be specifically applied, these are phosphorus and
potassium as will be explained forthwith. In order to programme the nutrition of the crops it must be born in mind
that each crop has its own nutritional needs, hence the interest in establishing crop rotations. As a starting point
the soil should be tested for its phosphorus, potassium and pH level, and if necessary the levels should be
optimised before establishing the first crop of organic production.
In organic farming, in the same way as in other parts of the production process, (phytosanitary
defence, elimination of weeds etc.) there is a tendency to optimise the efficiency of fertilisers by means of
Integrated Systems of Plant Nutrition (SINP). SINP tries to achieve maximum efficiency when bringing nutritive
elements to crops by means of a better association of the agricultural and non-agricultural sources of nutrients,
trying to achieve a sustainable agricultural production based on a better productive capacity of the soil. With these
systems the need for mineral fertilisers can be considerably reduced as they bring timely and sufficient supplies of
plant nutrients and reduce the loss of these nutrients in the cultivation systems as much as possible. The adoption
of SINP includes the potential to increase the profitability of the use of fertilisers (FAO, 1993).
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3.3.3 PLANT NUTRITION AND TECHNIQUES IN ORGANIC FARMING
Environmental reasons
Economic reasons
Problems with supply
That of the farm producing ecologically. The nutrients are transferred by livestock and crops (animal
manure, straw, forage) and also between the different stages of rotation.
That of the soil. In the plant/soil system the nutrients are absorbed from the soil by the plant and later
returned to it when the plant dies. Micro-organisms and the fauna in the soil, water and gas also intervene
in this cycle. Nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium circulate in the soil and in animals in different ways due
to their chemical properties. This affects the way in which the different nutrients should be managed to
obtain maximum recycling and retention.
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Options for managing the fertility
A fertile soil is that which is capable of maintaining a crop with optimum production. The most fertile soils are
deep, well drained and loose, with an adequate content of nutrients and organic material and with a correct
structure. These soils have an intense activity of microbial and invertebrate organisms, assuring an optimal
liberation of nutrients for the growth of the crop. The best soils are the same as in conventional farming, except
that in organic production the use of synthetic fertilisers is not permitted. It is for this reason that, in order to
provide the nutritive necessities of the crops, the choice of a correct crop rotation is fundamental.
Cultivation systems:
Crop rotation
Covering with leguminous species
Green manure
Covering crops
Supply of manure and fertilisers
Produced in the same farm (solids and liquids)
The purchase of organic manure or fertilisers
Crops
Given that it is not permitted to use synthetic fertilisers it is vitally important to achieve a natural availability of
nutrients according to the needs of the crop.
Nitrogen in the soil
Nitrogen is required for the growth of leaves and for the production used in photosynthesis. In organic production it
habitually occurs in organic ways and needs to be converted into ammonia or nitrate in order to be absorbed into
the plant. The most interesting aspects, with reference to its availability in function of the form in which it is found,
are shown in Table 7.
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Table 7: Forms of nitrogen in the soil and conversion by micro-organisms
Nitrogen supply
In dung, as well as in compost or other forms, nitrogen is found mainly in organic forms and needs to be converted
into an ammoniac or nitric form so that it can be used by the plants.
Some plants, as for example leguminous ones (clover, alfalfa, beans, peas, etc.) are able to absorb atmospheric
nitrogen, therefore the inclusion of clover or other leguminous crops in the rotation allows adequate nitrogen levels
in the soil without the need for fertilisers.
This process is due to bacteria, known as Rhizobium, which are found in the nodules of leguminous crops. During
the symbiosis the bacteria bring nitrogen to the plant and the plant gives them the necessary nutrients.
By introducing the following crop into the rotation the nitrogen present in the nodules will be available over the
next two years as not all the nitrogen is liberated immediately.
A mixed cover with clover can fix about 160 kg of nitrogen per hectare, although this quantity can vary according
to the age of the leguminous plants, climatic conditions etc.
Form in the soil Nitrogen in the
organic material
Ammoniacal
nitrogen (NH4+)
Nitrate (NO3-)
Conversion by the micro-organisms in the soil
Availability for the
plant
No Scarcely Yes
Lost in the
atmosphere
No As ammonia gas Nitrogen and nitrous
oxide gas
Lost through
draining away
No No Yes
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The quantities of humus contributed by different crops vary in function of the part of the plant considered, as in the
species in example (Table 8).
Table 8: Quantity of humus in function of the part of the plant used.
With regard to the nitrogen, it is important to remember some points in order to optimise the advantages and avoid
losses:
It is soluble and can be lost in gas form.
The extractions by the crop and losses may be replaced thanks to the absorption of leguminous plants.
These crops liberate nitrogen making it available for the plant or losing it.
When the soil is barren in winter large quantities of nitrogen can be lost (for example due to water seepage).
The problem is not usually the total quantities required, so much as the extractions not being in harmony with
what is supplied.
Nitrogen is less difficult to replace than phosphorus and potassium.
Quantity of humus in function of the part of the plant used. kg of humus per ha of crop
Wheat stalks and roots
Wheat roots and buried pellets
Barley stalks and roots
Barley roots and buried pellets
Corn roots and stalks
Corn roots and buried leaves
Beetroot leaves and necks
Green manure
300-600
600-1200
200-500
400-1000
400-800
800-1200
500-800
300-700
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The diagram in 6 shows the nitrogen cycle in a grass and clover meadow.
You can see that one of the most important fluxes is the direct fixing of nitrogen by Rhizobium bacteria in the roots
of the clover.
Another aspect worth mentioning is the action of bacteria in the soil on the organic matter (in the form
of compost) providing nitrogen available for the plants, this being the main way of supplying nitrogen to non-
leguminous plants. The possibility of leaching can mean important losses of nitrogen, depending on the rainfall
and/or watering.
Figure 6: The cycle of nitrogen in a grass/clover meadow (Source: Simpson, 1987)
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Phosphorus in the soil (P2O5)
Phosphorus in the soil is assimilated by plants only in the form of phosphate (P2O5). Phosphates are
needed so that seeds can germinate and so that the roots can grow. More than 90% of the phosphate in the soil is
not available in a form that plants can assimilate, as it forms part of the different mineral compounds (tricalcium
phosphate, iron and aluminium compounds, etc.) and the organic material. Phosphate levels can be maintained
by the residues of the crops and by the addition of phosphoric rock. This constitutes the only contribution of
phosphorus in organic production, apart from phosphate, that is usually allowed. In spite of the fact that
phosphoric rock is accepted in the usual techniques of standard production it can take months or years until the
phosphate can be assimilated by the plants. The availability of phosphate is greater when the pH level is between
5.5 and 6.6, which is not the case for the majority of soils i.e. in the Mediterranean basin, which usually have pH
levels of higher than 8 and contents of active limestone greater than 7%. Ion phosphate is much less mobile than
nitrogen and needs to be found within the root system or nearby. The Mycorrhiza Fungi that live in the roots of the
plants are very useful as their hyphae can colonise a volume of soil much greater than that which the plants’ own
roots can.
Important aspects which should be known about phosphorus:
The availability of phosphate, short-term, can become an important problem given that phosphoric correctors
(phosphoric rock, etc.) are for long-term use.
Phosphate does not suffer losses due to seepage or in gas form, but it can be lost through erosion, particularly
when the correctors have been heaped up.
Standard soil analysis only shows the phosphorus available for the plant but not the existing reserves.
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Phosphorus in the soil (P2O5)
Potassium (K2O)
Potassium is used to control the balance of water in the plant and helps to maintain its defences. It is required for
the synthesis of hydrocarbons, whether these be in the form of starch or sugars. It favours a natural resistance
against attacks by plagues and diseases. Potassium is probably the most difficult nutrient to manage in organic
production.
Clay soils are no particular handicap, as they allow for a balanced crop rotation of species and have adequate
levels for the majority of crops.
The most important problems are found in sandy soils, in which there is usually a deficiency of potassium. Straw
has a considerable potassium content and its recycling as manure is essential in ecological production.
Certain compounds such as potatoes and leafy vegetables need important quantities, straw can also extract a lot
of potassium. If these crops are sold a great deal of attention must be paid to replacing losses. Like phosphorus,
potassium is not very mobile in the soil, although more so than phosphorus, therefore crops with a good root
system are the best ones for extracting the available potassium from the soil. The following must be considered:
To replace the potassium in the same place as the losses are produced.
Important quantities of potassium can be lost through leaching in the mounds where potassium correctors are
stored.
Potassium rock constitutes a long-term supply of potassium.
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Extraction of nutrients for crops
The extractions depend on the kind of crop, as here below in example (Table 9) and quantifying must be carried
out to plan their supply with compost or manure.
Table 9: Extractions by weight and by hectare corresponding to different crops.
Kg of nutrient per ton of fresh matter Production Kg of nutrient extracted per ha.
N P2O5 K2O per ha N P2O5 K2O
Barley grain 17 7.8 5.6 5 85 39 28
Parley straw 5 1.5 12.6 3 15 5 38
Wheat grain 19 7.8 5.6 7 130 55 39
Wheat straw 5 1.3 9.3 4 20 5 37
Oats 17 8.0 6.0
Potato tuber 3 1.0 5.0 36 126 32 180
Grass ensilage 1.4 4.8 30 160 42 144
Grass hay 4.8 16.0 7.5 90 36 120
Pea grain 8.8 10.0 4 144 35 44
Carrot 2 1 4
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Green manure
Green manure or cover crops are often confused, both are cultivated for different reasons but they have some
advantages in common. Cover crops are grown throughout the winter period, when the soil would be barren were
it not for these crops, mainly to prevent the loss of nitrates through leaching. They provide a residual supply of
nitrogen for the next crop. Green manure is the use of a green crop, normally a leguminous one, which is grown
mainly so that it can be buried to provide nutrients. Green manure can be used several times for its forage
benefits or for selling. It is usually grown for 12 months or longer.
Amongst the many advantages of green manure the following are noteworthy:
• It provides organic material
• If they are leguminous crops they allow the nitrogen in the air to be available to the plants
• It increases the availability of nutrients (phosphorus, potassium, etc.)
• It improves the structure of the soil
• It reduces the leaching of nitrates
• It eliminates weeds
• It reduces the problems brought about by plagues and diseases by providing a break in the normal sequence
of the crops
Possible crops that can be considered green manure: clover, red clover, peas. Possible cover crops: ray-grass,
forage rape, mustard (it can die off in the winter) and forage radish. The residues of the crops also provide
important quantities of humus when they decompose. (Table 10).
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Table 10: Quantities of humus provided by different crop residues.
Sowing/planting
In certain plots of land transplanting may have advantages such as:
Less time required from the time of planting to the time of harvesting
An earlier harvest
The land is occupied for less time thus allowing two crops per year
The crop is better assured as problems of germination and shoots have been eliminated
Weeds are controlled more effectively, by growing the crop and colonising the area more quickly than the weeds
can.
The main disadvantage of this system is the higher cost per plant, which is why it is usually used for
vegetable production. In larger areas the transplant operation needs to be mechanised meaning an investment in
buying or hiring machinery, which is not always possible. The best time for sowing and/or transplanting of different
species and varieties depends on latitude with relevant climate, specific climatic conditions and hydric state of the
soil. The dates shown in Table 11 are just examples to understand the importance of choosing the right period for
sowing.
Type of crop residue Kg of humus per ha. of crop
Wheat stalks and roots
Wheat roots and buried pellets
Barley stalks and roots
Barley roots and buried pellets
Corn stalks and roots
Corn roots and buried leaves and stems
Beetroot leaves and necks
Green manure
300-600
600-1200
200-500
400-1000
400-800
800-1200
500-800
300-700
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Table 11: Sowing dates corresponding to different crops.
Crop Suggested dates for
sowing
Too soon Too late
Spring oats March/April Weeds/Few plants Low production
Winter wheat October Diseases / Weeds Few plants, low production
Potatoes April/May Low shoots, affected by frosts Low production, diseases
Carrot May Weakness,deficient establishment Low production, deficient establishment in
dry soil
Leeks April Deficient establishment Low production
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Density of sowing and distances for planting (transplanting)
The density of sowing and transplanting are vitally important, given that the results are related to this variable, in
spite of the fact that other factors such as the species, variety, soil preparation, soil temperature and
environmental conditions influence the number of plants per m² and therefore the results. Therefore the following
should be taken into consideration:
Loss of production may be caused by too many or too few plants.
Denser crops make it harder for weeds to low grow.
Crops with large seeds (corn, etc.) should be planted deeper in the soil than those which have small seeds
(grass seed, common bentgrass, fescue grass, alfalfa, clover). This is due to the fact that the reserves of the
smaller seeds are much more limited, and if they were planted deeper, when they germinated they would not
reach the surface, therefore they must be planted near the surface in a springy soil.
Very early or very late seeds or those sown in soil with bad conditions need to be sown more densely than in
optimum condition soil, due to the lower percentage of shoots.
In heavy soils with insufficient structure and with low organic content crusts may be formed which lead to
important decreases in the percentage of shoots if the soil is not turned over.
In certain species of edible vegetables (onions, lettuce, etc.) the variation in the density when planting allows
different sizes to be obtained, the greater the density the smaller the size.
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The density and thus the amount of seeds sown vary according to species due to the differences in the size of the
seeds.
For the majority of crops the ideal situation is that in which there is the same distance between the plants in the
same row as in the next row (a squared framework). This allows the plants an optimum spatial growth even
though it allows room for small weeds to grow.
For practical sowing and transplanting reasons this framework is not often applicable. However the decrease in
the distance between the rows, for example in the case of cereals of 18 cm instead of 13 cm can be
advantageous. In many vegetable and cereal crops cultivation between the rows (mechanical weeding) is habitual
for weed control, therefore the distance between the rows must be adequate to allow this operation. The distance
between plants in the same row will be used to obtain the size or calibre required. In Table 12 you can see an
example for the amount of seeds and densities when planting for some crops.
Table 12: Amount of seeds and density of planting for some crops.
Crop Amount of seed (kg/ha) Plants/m2 Distance (cm)
Spring oats
Spring barley
Winter wheat
Potatoes
200-300
200-300
250-300
1000-1500
400-500
350-450
250-400
4-10
18x1.2 - 12x2
18x1.5 - 12x2
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Harvesting
Harvesting is a process that takes on special importance in the case of some crops that can be
damaged if they are not harvested correctly, such as certain fruits and vegetables (apples, peaches, grapes,
tomatoes, etc.). In the case of others the harvesting does not take on such importance as the crops are easily
handled (potatoes, melons, carrots, beans, artichokes, etc..) In addition, apart from the physical process of
harvesting the best moment to do it must be taken into consideration, depending on:
The species and the variety
The destination of the product and the requirements of the market-consumer
The means of transport
The packaging system used
Due to the important differences in harvesting processes, the different crops may de divided into:
Cereals
Cereals are ready to be harvested when the grain has hardened. However, in certain crops and in
damp climates it is difficult to achieve degrees of humidity that allow for adequate preservation, so they will have
to be artificially dried in dryers (corn, sunflowers, etc.).
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Root crops and vegetables
Tubers must be harvested as soon as the skin has formed. The earliness with which they are harvested is
influenced by:
The presence of certain diseases of the foliage (bacteria, fungi) that could reach the tuber and cause important
damage whether it be in the field or later when stored.
The variety of the crop. Early varieties are better suited to organic production, as they are harvested, i.e. before
potato bacteriosis becomes a problem.
The market. Early varieties usually command higher prices, despite the fact that the production and taste may
be inferior to later varieties.
Preservation and storage
The possibility of preserving the products correctly is not only limited by the choice of technical harvesting
conditions but it also depends on factors that have occurred throughout the growth of the product to be preserved.
In many cases these factors condition the duration of the preservation. Amongst these factors the following are
worthy of a mention:
The climate: temperature, relative humidity, rainfall, light, wind, etc.
The nutritional state
Watering
Attacks by plagues and diseases
The state of maturity when harvesting
In the case of fruit and vegetables as well as cereals the following points should be considered:
Hygienic measures when handling the food products
Ventilation in the store
A suitable temperature in the store
Enough space
The amount of time in storage
Available resources for the exploitation
Planning of the market needs
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In the same way that there are different methods of harvesting according to the different kind of crop and in the
part that is eaten, they may be divided into two main groups:
Root crops
These should be stored when, having been pulled from the ground, they have dried. The store must be cool, free
from frosts and well ventilated to prevent disease. The potato is the tuber that throughout history has been the
most important crop, providing the basis of the diet in many countries, especially after war conflicts.
Vegetables
These may be stored for:
A short period of time ( a few days) before being commercialised, to avoid excess offer or to lengthen the period
in periods of scarcity.
Long-term (several months) to extend the period of commercialisation.
Vegetables harvested must be put into cold-storage as quickly as possible. The length of the storage depends on
the part of the leaf that is to be used. For example, in leafy vegetables (lettuce, curly lettuce, chard, etc.) the
storage time is limited, whilst for other crops such as marrow, radishes or carrots the length is much greater. The
ones that are in between are those crops in which the fruit is the edible part (tomatoes, peppers, cucumber,
aubergine or courgettes). Granaries: if the floors are ventilated or in bulb containers (onions).
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Potatoes as an example
As an example here are some of the most important characteristics for preserving potatoes. The preservation of
potatoes is generally easy, but it basically depends on the temperature and the relative humidity of the store. The
mid-season or late varieties may be kept for up to 10 months. In order to do this they must be free from damage or
alterations in the pulp and they must not be green. The greater the specific weight and content of dry matter the
better they will preserve. During the first fortnight they must be at a temperature of 15ºC and well ventilated, with a
high relative humidity to help any "wounds" to heal over. After this the temperature depends on the variety and
their destination. If the destination is for direct consumption the best temperature is 4º-5ºC, but if they are for
industrial use they should be stored at between 7º and 10ºC. The relative humidity should be kept at around 85%
so as to avoid excessive loss due to excess weight. They should be well ventilated and not exposed to light as this
can cause them to go green. (Gorini, 1979).
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3.4. ORGANIC FOOD PROCESSING .
3.4.1. Organic food processing and HACCP
Organic food processing is submitted, as it is also for conventional food products, to HACCP (Hazard
Animal Critical Control Point) prescriptions. HACCP provides continual measures of quality that can uncover
problems and fluctuations since they occur and before the product is shipped. Therefore HACCP is a more
immediate and consistent way to control quality and risks associated to food processing than off-the-shelf testing.
HACCP prescriptions set all measures necessary to ensure the safety and wholesomeness of foodstuffs. The
HACCP measures cover all stages after primary production, during preparation, processing, manufacturing,
packaging, storing, transportation, distribution, handling, and offering for sale or supply to the consumers.
All main prescriptions concerning hygiene are included:
Biological hazard, due to pollution from any biological agent (moulds or toxins from raw materials, equipment,
etc.) ;
Chemical hazard, due to pollution from any chemical agent (heavy metals, pesticide residues, traces of
reagents, cleansers, etc.) ;
Physical hazard, due to pollution from any physical agent (fragments of wood, plastic, metal or glass deriving
from raw materials or equipment).
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3.4. ORGANIC FOOD PROCESSING .
3.4.1. Organic food processing and HACCP
The HACCP procedures are based on Critical Control Points, a step at which control can be applied
and is essential to prevent or eliminate a food safety hazard or reduce it to an acceptable level, in correspondence
of critical points, that are manufacturing phases (or areas) where some kind of risk is expected or was highlighted
by a specific monitoring activity. Preventive or corrective measures can be set in order to protect safety and
healthiness of products. The principles of HACCP from Codex Alimentarius are based on seven principles:
Principle 1: conduct a hazard analysis ;
Principle 2: determine the CCPs (Critical Control Points) ;
Principle 3: establish critical limits
Principle 4: state a system to monitor the CCPs ;
Principle 5: establish corrective actions to be taken when monitoring indicates that a specific CCP is not under
control ;
Principle 6: fix procedures for verification to confirm that the HACCP system is correctly working ;
Principle 7: set documentation concerning all procedures and records appropriate to guarantee HACCP
principles and their application.
Even if the HACCP Manual will be provided by an external expert, it is very important to choose the
right persons for internal control, responsible for specific critical points and the person in charge of the general
control procedures. All those persons have to be trained before they are in charge of the correspondent control
level. The HACCP manual will be specifically released by the expert for the specific farm or company with a step-
by-step description of all processing procedures, from the raw materials to the food products.
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The product are to be described according to specific characteristics
concerning:
Packaging description ;
Durability (Best before..) ;
Composition ;
Physical/chemical structure ;
Processing treatments ;
Nutritional facts ;
Storage conditions ;
Method of distribution.
Also intended use is to be provided, such as expected use by consumers (i.e. for organic consumers residues
must be absent) and recommendations for vulnerable groups of population (i.e. suitable for babies or people
intolerant to lactose or celiac persons). A flow-diagram is included in the HACCP Manual to identify the Critical
Control Points during the different phases. (Figure 14)
Figure 14 - HACCP flow diagram
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On this basis a monitoring procedure for each CCP is established as follows:
Collected data are evaluated by a designated person in charge of carrying out corrective actions ;
Must be possible to take corrective actions can be taken as soon as possible ;
All records must be signed by the persons doing the monitoring and by a responsible reviewing official.
The HACCP Plan is to be regularly verified and reviewed by mean of :
formal internal auditing plan ;
certification ;
analyzing clients’ complaints ;
record keeping.
it will include :
Description of the farm/factory with:
name, address, business number registration and kind of activities ;
owner related personal data ;
description of activities, such as processing and/or selling, staff organization and work description.
Processing area description:
factory lay-out with processing steps in relation to divisions;
cleaning (schedule, tools and procedures);
maintenance plan, to avoid contamination from utilities; pest control.
General requirements for the processing areas:
easy cleaning and disinfection of walls and floors;
appropriate lighting and airing;
regularly performed pest monitoring and controlling measures; separate room for lavatories and cleaning
products.
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Processing equipment description:
equipment description with processing steps in relation to divisions;
cleaning (schedule, tools and procedures);
maintenance plan, to avoid contamination from equipment; pest control.
Equipment and tools cleaning:
detailed scheduled plan of ordinary cleaning activities,
detailed description of the cleaning procedures for extraordinary cleaning in case of long work interruption; tools
to be used for
each operation.
Staff management:
personal hygiene and training on HACCP procedures.
Organic farming and traceability
Food products in conversion to organic farming can also be labeled with the relevant reference, with exclusion of
animal production (eggs, milk, meat,..) that can not be labeled as in conversion. The conversion period is different
depending of kind of product:
vegetables can be commercialized as organic after a 24 months conversion period,
before seeding;
permanent pastures can be used as organic fodder after a 24 months conversion period;
permanent cultivations different of pastures can give organic products after a 3 years
conversion period since the first harvest.
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The EC Reg. 834/07 includes (Art. 23, paragraph 4,a) the mandatory provision to use the organic logo
of the European Union on label of the pre-packed organic food made in EU. This use is optional for labels of non
pre-packed products made in EU or imported from third countries. The technical provisions to reproduce the EU
organic logo are described in the CE Reg. 271/2010, Annex XI, in all the EU languages (see
http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/organic/eu-policy/logo_en ). According to the EC Reg. 834/07 also national and/or
private logo can be associated on label with the EU official one. The most known in the world, for their large use,
are in Europe:
„Agricolture Biologique” (AB-France), is property of the Ministry of Agriculture, Food, Fishery and Rural
Development and is very popular in France, so it can be convenient to associate it to the EU logo. It obliges to
respect also the French organic regulation that includes some differences for the animal production. For organic
wines it is obligatory to add “Vin d e s raisins biologiques”. Information on www.agencebio.org .
„BIOSIEGEL” is the official food for organic farming in Germany. It is optional and complementary to
the EU logo. It is necessary to send a written request to the BioSiegel certification centre to be authorized to use
the logo. See also www.bio-siegel.de
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Japanese Agricultural Standards (Japanese Market). This certification is obligatory to export to Japan
both organic vegetable raw materials and processed products; it is optional for products from animal
production and feedstuffs. The certification is not necessary if the Japanese importer is JAS certified.
Canada Organic Regime (Canadian Market). COR started as a certification in July 2009 and it is
obligatory since July 2011 for organic products addressed to the Canadian Market. There are two
categories:
“organic” (at least 95% in weight organic);
“contains X% organic ingredients” (between 70% and 95% organic ingredients).
All the organic supply chain has to be COR certified. From an Agreement between Canada and USA, the COR
certified products, with some added requirements, can be admitted to the USA organic market.
National Organic Program (USA Market). The NOP certification is obligatory for export of organic
products to USA. There are four categories:
“100% organic”;
“organic” (at least 95% organic ingredients);
“made with organic ingredients” (at least 70% organic ingredients);
“less than 70% organic” (products with less than 70% organic ingredients).
(Swiss Market) The certification BioSuisse is based on a private Swiss standard ownership of an
organic producers’ association. Special strict rules are requested to the producers, also involving
environmental sustainability, such as i.e. air freight not admitted for raw materials and for organic ingredients not
available in Switzerland the proximity criteria (the closest country where those ingredients are available) are to be
followed.
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3.5. ORGANIC FOOD MARKETING AND COMMERCIALIZATION
3.5.1. Marketing and organic farming and food
Marketing is a management tool of any business aiming to enhance sales and incomes. Marketing
starts with deciding what to produce based on the requirements of the market. The market, in this case, refers to
the persons or organisations who demand the products on offer for consumption, further selling or processing.
Knowing the target market or markets is an extremely important factor to successful marketing. Traditionally,
farmers and their advisors focus on increasing production on farms and then look for markets to sell what is
produced, instead of producing what the market wants. The adoption of a marketing strategy requires farmers to
shift their focus from “producing for the market” to “producing what the target customers want”. The decision to
produce according to market requirements is an important marketing step, as it involves a commitment to specific
customer needs, such as type of product, quality and quantity and sets some strategic aims:
Understand the importance of marketing
Understand where to find relevant information about market opportunities, prices and quality requirements
Understand how to identify market expectations in terms of quality, standards and know how to cope with these
standards
Recognize who is involved in organic marketing and know the steps on how to organise organic markets
Learn how to assess the market potential of organic products
Learn how to develop a marketing concept, define a marketing strategy and apply marketing techniques
Understand how organic market development can be promoted beyond individual businesses
Determine when organic certification is useful and know how to get access to it.
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Marketing of organic productsOrganic farmers who produce for the market are interested to know the market potential and how to
get access to organic markets. Giving best value to high quality organic products is a major concern of organic
farmers and needs specific techniques. Marketing products as organic also requires certification of the farm. No
organic certification is required, if the farm products are not sold as organic. The decision to certify the farm as
organic should be linked to the possibility of marketing a relevant share of the farm products as organic with a
premium price. The premium price should cover at least the certification costs. Application for certification can be
made when the entire farm, or a specific part of it appointed to organic farming, is managed organically.
Depending on the organic standards there is a defined transition or conversion period of one to three years.
During this time, depending on the standards, the farm products must either be marketed as non-organic, or they
can be marketed as organic products originating from a farm in conversion. Most customers in export markets,
however, request organic products that originate from farms that have already achieved the conversion period.
Marketing organic products involves considerable personal initiative. To access domestic and local markets,
farmers need to communicate the value of their products to local traders and customers. This may involve inviting
them to the farm and explaining the principles of organic production and showing them advantages of the organic
approach for nature and the positive impact on product quality. Traders and customers buy organic products
based on a certificate from a nationally recognized organic certification body. Local supermarkets may require
registration as a member of an organic farming association as an additional guarantee of the farmer’s commitment
to organic agriculture. In case the farmers want to sell to export markets through a trader, there may be specific
regulations to comply with. Organic products are commonly targeted for the local market in the producing
countries whereby local demand normally surpasses the supply. In such situations, there is still room to increase
production to meet the ever increasing demand. However, in some cases, consumers even within domestic
markets are demanding sustainably produced animal products such as eggs, milk and meat. There is, therefore,
an opportunity for marketing sustainably produced or organic products which can fetch premium prices. But the
decision to certify organic production should be primarily based on the availability of the market or the willingness
of retailers to promote sustainably produced or organic animal products.
Figure 17 - Flow chart cycle production-sales
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Quality requirements for organic products
Supply chain management is one of the key issues to the success of developing an organic market at
local, regional, national and international level. Efficiency and quality management are determining factors and
need particular attention. Key issue in quality development is the establishment of a quality assurance system
throughout the supply chain. This involves quality of raw materials, procurement control system, processing
quality, packaging, and stock management. Both the marketing organisations and the producers need to apply a
Total Quality Management (TQM) for their operation so that product quality can be continuously maintained.
Different markets have different requirements regarding the quality, certification and documentation of
organic products. Therefore, in the process of planning an organic business and corresponding marketing
activities, producers need to decide for which market they would like to produce. Part of this query relates to find
out which regulations are relevant for what countries and marketing opportunities.
Consumers expect a specific quality from specific products. To know the quality expectations and to
implement them in the product design and marketing, therefore, are fundamental for the success of an organic
business. At the same time, producers have to make sure that they can guarantee this quality along the complete
product chain.
Quality refers to multiple aspects that define as the marketability of a given product in terms of:
Food safety: free of residues and contaminants
Nutritional value of product, content of vitamins, antioxidants, polyunsaturated fatty acids etc.
Free from additives and colorants
Natural taste and smell
External appearance: colour, healthy looking (free of blemishes, disease)
Appropriate packaging; presentable and hygienic packaging for consumer markets
Environmental benefits of a product towards natural resources and climate
Consistency and continuity of supply
Communication services such as labelling, informing about this quality
Organic certification endorsing this quality.
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Organic markets differences from other markets
Company objectives. In addition to economic objectives like increase sales volume and income, aspects of
ecological and social responsibility are also to be considered. This means for example: save and recycling of
energy, a minimum fair salary for all employees of a farm or a trading company and a fair share of the benefits
to all business partners. These aspects are highly appreciated and increase the credibility for customers.
Transportation restrictions. Food miles and carbon emission in transport become increasingly important in
organic trade. Some privately controlled organic standards such as Soil Association (UK) and Bio Suisse
(Switzerland) do not allow import by air. Transported goods may only be sprayed with pesticides or cleansing
agents, which are specially permitted for use with organic products.
Packaging and declaration. Packaging must be free from pesticides, colourings, solvents or cleansing
agents, which could contaminate the organic products. Organic products must be labelled in accordance with
the regulations laid down by the organic legislation of the country where the products are sold.
Organic legislations and standards. In order to sell organic products on the market and labelling them as
organic, producers and traders have to comply with specific regulations. The main goal of organic standards
and regulations is to regulate organic production (on the farm), organic processing (food industry) and trade.
MODULE 3
PART II – LEVEL 3
Organic markets differences from other markets
Private standards in organic agriculture were first set up by organic farmers’ associations on a private level,
as binding rules of production for their members. The first private organic standards and labels were Demeter
(international), Bioland and Naturland (Germany), Bio Suisse (Switzerland), Nature et Progrès (France) and the
Soil Association (UK).
Since the nineties of the last millennium, more than 60 governments developed and put into force public
organic regulations or are on the way to it. On a governmental level, there are organic regulations in the EU, in
the USA (NOP), Japan (JAS), Switzerland and many other countries.
At the international level the Codex Alimentarius Commission (CAC) publishes the “Guidelines for
Production, Processing, Labelling and Marketing of Organically Produced Foods” on which national
governments base their legal regulations. At the international private sector level, the IFOAM Norms include a
global organic standard approved by the representative of the organic movement. These standards provide
guidance on management principles for the production of agricultural products, handling, storage, processing,
packaging and transport of products as well as a list of permitted substances.
MODULE 3
PART II – LEVEL 3
Market opportunities
In the process of identifying a market opportunity, most important is to clarify how a specific business
idea might generate tangible benefits to a specific group of consumers. In terms of ’marketing thinking’, this comes
down to the development of a sound ’marketing concept’, which relates the value that is perceived by a specific
target group of consumers with the costs that occur when providing a specific good. For producers it becomes
interesting as soon as the value consumers attribute to a specific good is considerably higher than the costs
providing it. This is the case for many organic producers, but of course needs to be analysed individually, for
example in the process of conversion to organic farming. In methodological terms, a marketing concept is defined
by 5 P’s, which all relate to how consumers perceive and value a specific good: Product, Packaging, Price, Place
and Promotion:
Product: an innovative, high quality product is the basis for success in an organic business.
Place: the place where a product is sold is of great relevance to make sure that those consumers who are
targeted get to know the product and have access to it for purchasing. It is important to make sure that the
product is easily found in the store and shelf where it logically should be placed.
Price: each product involves production and marketing costs. However, the product price is much more than
’just’ covering these.
MODULE 3
PART II – LEVEL 3
Market opportunities
Costs: it is to visualize the value this product has for the consumer. Therefore, the price is an important asset to
help consumers understand the value of a product and should be determined based on knowing how much
consumers are willing to pay for this product.
Packaging: the packaging is many times the first thing a consumer notes about a product. The packaging must
not only be appealing but communicate in an optimal way what the product is offering, meeting consumer’s
wish. In this sense, the packaging with its label must establish a clear hierarchy of what attributes are most
important for the consumer and visualize these correspondingly.
Promotion: there are so many products out there, that consumers don’t have the time to search for products
and get informed about them. That is why promotion is so important, to help present a product to the target
consumers in the right way: in the right time, in the right place and with the best way to make the consumer
understand the valuable attributes it is offering to him. It is important to come across clearly well positioned and
available messages that help consumers understand why this product is beneficial to them.
MODULE 3
LEVEL 3 Test
Module 3 - Tests and assignments
ANSWER THE FOLLOWING QUESTIONS
What kind of farming technique is not allowed by organic method?
a. Maintenance of vegetable cover or crop remains on the soil
b. Use of synthetic chemical fertilizers to increase nitrogen availability on the soil
c. Addition of organic material by means of compost, manure or burying green crops
Which of the following farming practices is not useful to preserve the soil from degradation?
a. Crop rotation
b. Managing vegetable residues for manure
c. Use of chemical herbicidal
Question 1
Question 2
MODULE 3
LEVEL 3 Test
Which of the following sentences is not right?
a. Susceptibility of the different crops to plagues and diseases is not to be considered in organic farming
b. Nitrogen is required for the growth of leaves and for the production used in photosynthesis
c. In organic farming the largest possible amount of mineral elements extracted from the soil return to it
Which bacteria located in the nodules of leguminous crops are able to absorb atmospheric nitrogen?
a. Botrytis
b. Rhizobium
c. Oidium
Question 3
Question 5
MODULE 3
LEVEL 3 Test
What is the main economic advantage of crop rotation?
a. It provides nitrogen for soil fertility
b. It allows the farmer to distribute the economic risks and to be less sensitive to fluctuations in price
c. It provides subsidies from agro-environmental measures
Why organic farming and food process is defined as an holistic production method?
a. Because it is based on economic global standards
b. Because it develops agriculture as a human activity inscribed in the life of the planet
c. Because it aims at developing farming and food systems at the highest level
Question 5
Question 6
MODULE 3
LEVEL 3 Test
What condition is not necessary to define “organic” a food product?
a. All the ingredients of agricultural origin of the product are, or are derived from, products obtained in
accordance with the requirements of organic production method
b. All the ingredients of agricultural origin or not have necessarily to be 100% organic
c. An organic product can not contain any ingredient of non-agricultural origin not listed as allowed
What are the references for labeled organic products on which is based the Reg. CE 834/07?
a. References to organic production method, certification and logos for organic products
b. References to food safety and hazard analysis critical control points
c. References safety at work in food supply chains
Question 7
Question 8
MODULE 3
LEVEL 3 Test
What product can be defined “organic”?
a. The product and all its ingredients have been obtained in compliance with EC Reg. 510/06
b. The product and all its ingredients have been obtained in compliance with EC Reg. 834/07
c. The product and all its ingredients have been obtained in compliance with EEC No 2078/92
Since HACCP provisions are obligatory also for organic food, there is a derogation in some cases?
a. Derogation for traditional foods in the European Union as listed by Member States
b. Derogation for agro-environmental measures included in the Rural Development Plans
c. Derogation for use of non-organic ingredients from non-agricultural products
Question 9
Question 10
MODULE 3
LEVEL 3 Test
SOLUTIONS
1)b
2)c
3)a
4)b
5)b
6)b
7)b
8)a
9)b
10)a
MODULE 3 Glossary
Antibiotics - are a type of antimicrobial used specifically against bacteria and are often used in medical
treatment of bacterial infections They may either kill or inhibit the growth of bacteria. Several antibiotic agents are
also effective against a number offungi, protozoans and some are toxic to humans and animals, even when
Audit planning is a vital area of the audit primarily conducted at the beginning of audit process to ensure that
appropriate attention is devoted to important areas, potential problems are promptly identified, work is completed
expeditiously and work is properly coordinated. "Audit planning" means developing a general strategy and a
detailed approach for the expected nature, timing and extent of the audit. The auditor plans to perform the audit in
an efficient and timely manner.
Biodynamic agriculture is a method of organic farming originally developed by Rudolf Steiner that employs what
proponents describe as "a holistic understanding of agricultural processes". One of the first sustainable
agriculture movements, it treats soil fertility, plant growth, and livestock care as ecologically interrelated tasks,
emphasizing spiritual and mystical perspectives. Proponents of biodynamic agriculture, including Steiner, have
characterized it as "spiritual science" as part of the larger anthroposophy movement
Crop rotation is the practice of growing a series of dissimilar/different types of crops in the same area in
sequential seasons. Crop rotation gives various nutrients to the soil. A traditional element of crop rotation is the
replenishment of nitrogen through the use of green manure in sequence with cereals and other crops. Crop
rotation also mitigates the build-up of pathogens and pests that often occurs when one species is continuously
cropped, and can also improve soil structure and fertility by alternating deep-rooted and shallow-rooted plants.
Crop rotation is one component of polyculture.
Derogation is the partial revocation of a law, as opposed to abrogation or the total abolition of a law. The term is
used in both civil law and common law. It is sometimes used, loosely, to mean abrogation, as in the legal maxim:
Lex posterior derogat priori, i.e. a subsequent law imparts the abolition of a previous one. Derogation differs from
dispensation in that it applies to the law, where dispensations applies to specific people affected by the law. In
terms of European Union legislation, a derogation can also imply that a member state delays the implementation
of an element of an EU Regulation (etc.) into their legal system over a given timescale, such as five years; or that
a member state has opted not to enforce a specific provision in a treaty due to internal circumstances (typically a
state of emergency).
MODULE 3
Glossary
Green manure is created by leaving uprooted or mown crop parts to wither on a field so that they serve as a
mulch and soil amendment. The plants used for green manure are often cover crops grown primarily for this
purpose. Typically, they are plowed under and incorporated into the soil while green or shortly after flowering.
Green manure is commonly associated with organic farming and can play an important role in sustainable annual
cropping systems.
Growth hormone (GH or HGH), also known as somatotropin or somatropin, is a peptide hormone that
stimulates growth, cell reproduction and regeneration in humans and other animals. It is a type of mitogen which
is specific only to certain kinds of cells. Growth hormone is a 191-amino acid, single-chain polypeptide that is
synthesized, stored, and secreted by somatotropic cells within the lateral wings of the anterior pituitary gland.
Humus - (coined 1790–1800; from the Latin humus: earth, ground) refers to the fraction of soil organic matter that
is amorphous and without the "cellular structure characteristic of plants, micro-organisms or animals." Humus
significantly influences the bulk density of soil and contributes to moisture and nutrient retention. In agriculture,
humus is sometimes also used to describe mature, or natural compost extracted from a forest or other
spontaneous source for use to amend soil. It is also used to describe a topsoil horizon that contains organic
matter (humus type, humus form, humus profile).
IFOAM - The International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM) is the worldwide umbrella
organization for the organic agriculture movement, which represents close to 800 affiliates in 117 countries.
IFOAM's declares its mission is to, "Lead, unite and assist the organic movement in its full diversity." and vision is
"Worldwide adoption of ecologically, socially and economically sound systems, based on the Principles of Organic
Agriculture."
Among its wide range of activities, IFOAM maintains an organic farming standard, and an organic accreditation
and certification service.
MODULE 3
Glossary
Know-how is a term for practical knowledge on how to accomplish something, as opposed to “know-what” (facts),
“know-why” (science), or “know-who” (communication). Know-how is often tacit knowledge, which means that it is
difficult to transfer to another person by means of writing it down or verbalising it. The opposite of tacit knowledge
is explicit knowledge. In the context of industrial property (now generally viewed as intellectual property - IP),
know-how is a component in the transfer of technology in national and international environments, co-existing with
or separate from other IP rights such as patents, trademarks and copyright and is an economic asset. While
know-how is recognized in U.S. Tax regulations as a property, services by individuals having know-how are not.
Organic farming is a form of agriculture that relies on techniques such as crop rotation, green manure, compost,
and biological pest control. Depending on whose definition is used, organic farming uses fertilizers and pesticides
(which include herbicides, insecticides and fungicides) if they are considered natural (such as bone meal from
animals or pyrethrin from flowers), but it excludes or strictly limits the use of various methods (including synthetic
petrochemical fertilizers and pesticides; plant growth regulators such as hormones; antibiotic use in livestock;
genetically modified organisms; human sewage sludge; and nanomaterials for reasons including sustainability,
openness, independence, health, and safety.
An organic product is made from organic raw materials. It also requires Organic certification.
Root vegetables are plant roots used as vegetables. Here "root" means any underground part of a plant. Root
vegetables are generally storage organs, enlarged to store energy in the form of carbohydrates. They differ in the
concentration and the balance between sugars, starches, and other types of carbohydrate. Of particular economic
importance are those with a high carbohydrate concentration in the form of starch. Starchy root vegetables are
important staple foods, particularly in tropical regions, overshadowing cereals throughout much of West Africa,
Central Africa, and Oceania, where they are used directly or mashed to make fufu or poi
Solid-phase extraction (SPE) is a sample preparation process by which compounds that are dissolved or
suspended in a liquid mixture are separated from other compounds in the mixture according to their physical and
chemical properties. Analytical laboratories use solid phase extraction to concentrate and purify samples for
analysis. Solid phase extraction can be used to isolate analytes of interest from a wide variety of matrices,
including urine, blood, water, beverages, soil, and animal tissue.
MODULE 3
Glossary
Sustainable agriculture is the act of farming using principles of ecology, the study of relationships between
organisms and their environment. The phrase was reportedly coined by Australian agricultural scientist Gordon
McClymont. It has been defined as "an integrated system of plant and animal production practices having a site-
specific application that will last over the long term" For Example: satisfy human food and fiber needs, enhance
environmental quality and the natural resource base upon which the agricultural economy depends, make the
most efficient use of non-renewable resources and on-farm resources and integrate, where appropriate, natural
biological cycles and controls, sustain the economic viability of farm operations, enhance the quality of life for
farmers and society as a whole.
Total quality management (TQM) consists of organization-wide efforts to install and make permanent a climate
in which an organization continuously improves its ability to deliver high-quality products and services to
customers. While there is no widely agreed-upon approach, TQM efforts typically draw heavily on the previously
developed tools and techniques of quality control. TQM enjoyed widespread attention during the late 1980s and
early 1990s before being overshadowed by ISO 9000, Lean manufacturing, and Six Sigma.
MODULE 3
References
• References
•
• Abitabile C., Povellato A. (a cura di) (2009) Strategie per lo sviluppo dell’agricoltura biologica. Risultati degli stati generali del biologico. Rapporto INEA
• Bookstaller C. , Girardin P. , Van Der Werf H.M.G. (1997) Use of agro-ecological indicators for the evaluation of farming systems, European Journal of
Agronomy
• Cavinato G. (a cura di) , Guida Verde & Naturale 2005 (2004) Ulysse Network s.r.l.
• Caccioni D., Colombo L. (a cura di) Il Manuale del biologico , Edagricole (2012)
• Ernst & Young LLP (1997) Outline for a business plan. A proven approach for entrepreneurs only.
• European Commission Directorate-General for Agriculture and Rural Development (2010): An analysis of the EU organic sector. Available at:
http://ec.europa.eu/agriculture/analysis/markets/organic_2010_en.pdf
• Ferrari M., Marcon E., Menta A. (2000) Lotta biologica. Edagricole Bologna
• Guet G. (2001) Agricoltura biologica mediterranea. Edagricole, Bologna.
• Hamilton L.H. (2007) Farming to create heaven on earth, Shumei international press, Shiga
• Hovi M., Sundrum A., Thamsborg S.M. (2003) Animal heath and welfare in organic livestock production in Europe: current state and future challenges.
Livest. Prod. Sci. 80: 41-53
• IFOAM (2002) Basic standards for organic production and processing. www.ifoam.org
• Koopmans C.J., Bokhorst J. (2000) Optimizing organic farming systems: Nitrogen dynamics and long term soil fertility in arable and vegetable production
systems in the Netherlands. Proceedings 13th International IFOAM Scientific conference, Bassel, Switzerland, 28-31 August 2000, 69-72.
• Lange, Stefan; Williges, Ute; Saxena, Shilpi and Willer, Helga, Eds. (2006) Research in Organic Food and Farming. Reports on organisation and
conduction of research programmes in 11 European countries. Bundesanstalt für Landwirtschaft und Ernährung (BLE) / Federal Agency for Agriculture
and Food BLE, Bonn, Germany.
• Pohl, Alexandra (2009): How do European Rural development Programmes support Organic Farming? Published by IFOAM EU Group, Brussels;
Available at: http://www.ifoam.org/about_ifoam/around_world/eu_group-new/positions/Others_II/final-RD_study_7.1_web.pdf
• Raviv M. (2010) Is organic agriculture sustainable? Chronica Horticulturae, 50 (2): 7-14.
• Sahota, Amarjit (2011): The Global Market for Organic Food and Drink. Published in: Willer, Helga and Lukas Kilcher (Eds.) (2011): The World of Organic
Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends 2011. FiBL-IFOAM Report. IFOAM, Bonn and FiBL, Frick.
• Schaack, Diana et al. (2011) The Organic Market in Europe. Published in: Willer, Helga and Lukas Kilcher (Eds.) (2011): The World of Organic
Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends 2011.
MODULE 3
References
• FiBL-IFOAM Report. IFOAM, Bonn and FiBL, Frick. Schmid, O., Dabbert, S., Eichert, C., Gonzálvez, V., Lampkin, N., Michelsen, J., Slabe, A., Stokkers,
R.,
• Schwarz, Gerald, Hiltrud Nieberg, Jürn Sanders: Organic Farming support Payments in the EU (2010), Special issue 339, Johann Heinrich von Thünen
Institut; Available at: http://literatur.vti.bund.de/digbib_extern/dn047300.pdf
• Soil Association (2000) The biodiversity benefits of organic farming
• Willer, Helga and Kilcher Lukas (Eds.) (2011): The World of Organic Agriculture. Statistics and Emerging Trends 2011. FiBL-IFOAM Report. IFOAM,
Bonn and FiBL, Frick.
• Stolze, M., Stopes, C., Wollmuthová, P., Vairo, D. and Zanoli, R. (2008): Organic Action Plans: Development, implementation and evaluation. A resource
manual for the organic food and farming sector. Edited by Schmid O., Stopes C., Lampkin N. and Gonzálvez V. Research Institute of Organic Agriculture
FiBL, CH-5070 Frick, Switzerland and IFOAM-EU Group, BE-1000 Brussels, Belgium (ISBN 978-3-03736-022-4). 105p. Available at
http://orgprints.org/13481/
• “Suolo e Salute” Associazione (2011) Guida all’etichettatura dei prodotti biologici. Grafiche Il Dado, Mirandola (MO)
• Vaarst M., Roderick S., Lund V., Locckretz W. (2004) Animal health and welfare in organic agriculture. CABI Publishing, CAB International, Wallingford
UK
• Zanoli R., Vairo D. , Bordoni A. (a cura di) (2010) Efficienza qualità e innovazione nella zootecnia biologica. Errebi Grafiche Ripesi, Falconara M. (AN)
MODULE 3
LEVEL 3 CERTIFICATE