Kashmir

For other uses, see Kashmir (disambiguation).See also: Cashmere (disambiguation)Kashmir is a geographical region situated between

PoliticalMap: the Kashmir region districts, showing the Pir Pan-jal range and the Kashmir valley or Vale of Kashmir.

Pahalgam Valley, Kashmir

India, Pakistan and China. Throughout the course ofthe history the geographical extent of the kingdom ofKashmir kept changing, however by the mid-19th cen-tury, the term Kashmir geographically denoted only thevalley between the Great Himalayas and the Pir Panjalmountain range. Today, it denotes a larger area thatincludes the Indian administered territories of Jammuand Kashmir (which consists of Jammu, the KashmirValley, and Ladakh), the Pakistan administered terri-tories of Azad Kashmir and Gilgit–Baltistan, and theChinese-administered regions of Aksai Chin and theTrans-Karakoram Tract.

Nanga Parbat in Kashmir, the ninth-highest mountain on Earth,is the western anchor of the Himalayas

The Karakash River (Black Jade River) which flows north fromits source near the town of Sumde in Aksai Chin, to cross theKunlun Mountains

Although Jammu is part of the disputed Kashmir re-gion, it is not geographically part of the Kashmir val-ley nor the Ladakh region. The Jammu Division is in-habited by the Dogra people who are historically, cul-turally, linguistically, and geographically connected withthe Punjab region and the Pahari regions of the for-mer Punjab Hills States that now comprise the state ofHimachal Pradesh.[1]

In the first half of the 1st millennium, the Kashmir re-gion became an important centre of Kambojas and laterof Buddhism; later still, in the ninth century, KashmirShaivism arose.[2] In 1339, Shah Mir became the firstMuslim ruler of Kashmir, inaugurating the Salatin-i-Kashmir or Swati dynasty.[3] For the next five centuries,

1

2 2 HISTORY

Muslim monarchs ruled Kashmir, including the Mughals,who ruled from 1586 until 1751, and the Afghan DurraniEmpire, which ruled from 1751 until 1820.[3] That year,the Sikhs, under Ranjit Singh, annexed Kashmir.[3] In1846, after the Sikh defeat in the First Anglo-Sikh War,and upon the purchase of the region from the British un-der the Treaty of Amritsar, the Raja of Jammu, GulabSingh, became the new ruler of Kashmir. The rule ofhis descendants, under the paramountcy (or tutelage) ofthe British Crown, lasted until 1947, when the formerprincely state of the British Indian Empire became a dis-puted territory, now administered by three countries: In-dia, Pakistan, and the People’s Republic of China.

1 Etymology

The Sanskrit word for Kashmir was कश्मीर (káśmīra)[4]and, as with many ancient toponyms, its source and orig-inal meaning remain unknown. Kashmir was archaicallyspelled Cashmere in English.Over the centuries, various Puranas linked the wordkaśmīra to the name of the mythical sage Kashyapa.The word kaśmīra was thus said to be a contraction ofkaśyapa-mīra meaning “Kashyapa’s sea” (and the Kash-mir Valley is then claimed to have formerly been a lake)or, alternately, kaśyapa-meru, or “Kashyapa’s mountain”.

2 History

Surya Mandir at Martand, photographed by John Burke, 1868.

Main article: History of KashmirFurther information: Timeline of the Kashmir conflictand Kashmir conflict

2.1 Hinduism and Buddhism in Kashmir

Further information: Buddhism in Kashmir and KashmirShaivism

Since medieval times, Kashmir has been an impor-

This general view of the unexcavated Buddhist stupa nearBaramulla, with two figures standing on the summit, and an-other at the base with measuring scales, was taken by John Burkein 1868. The stupa, which was later excavated, dates to 500 CE.

tant centre for the development of a Buddhist-Hinduistsyncretism, in which Madhyamaka and Yogacara wereblended with Saivism and Advaita Vedanta. The Bud-dhist Mauryan emperor Ashoka is often credited withhaving founded the old capital of Kashmir, Shrinagari,now ruins on the outskirts of modern Srinagar. Kashmirwas long to be a stronghold of Buddhism.[5] As a Buddhistseat of learning, the Sarvāstivādan school strongly in-fluenced Kashmir.[6] East and Central Asian Buddhistmonks are recorded as having visited the kingdom. Inthe late 4th century CE, the famous Kuchanese monkKumārajīva, born to an Indian noble family, studiedDīrghāgama and Madhyāgama in Kashmir under Band-hudatta. He later became a prolific translator who helpedtake Buddhism to China. His mother Jīva is thought tohave retired to Kashmir. Vimalākṣa, a SarvāstivādanBuddhist monk, travelled from Kashmir to Kucha andthere instructed Kumārajīva in the Vinayapiṭaka.According to tradition, Adi Shankara visited the pre-existing Sarvajñapīṭha (Sharada Peeth) in Kashmir in thelate 8th century or early 9th century CE. TheMadhaviyaShankaravijayam states this temple had four doors forscholars from the four cardinal directions. The southerndoor (representing South India) had never been opened,indicating that no scholar from South India had enteredthe Sarvajna Pitha. According to tradition, Adi Shankaraopened the southern door by defeating in debate all thescholars there in all the various scholastic disciplines suchas Mimamsa, Vedanta and other branches of Hindu phi-losophy; he ascended the throne of Transcendent wisdomof that temple.[7]

2.2 Muslim rule 3

Kashmiri Pandits, natives of Kashmir Valley belong toone of the prominent Shaiva sects of Hinduism

Abhinavagupta (c. 950–1020 CE[8][9]) was one of India’sgreatest philosophers, mystics and aestheticians. He wasalso considered an important musician, poet, dramatist,exeget, theologian, and logician[10][11] – a polymathicpersonality who exercised strong influences on Indianculture.[12][13] He was born in the Kashmir Valley[14] in afamily of scholars and mystics and studied all the schoolsof philosophy and art of his time under the guidance ofas many as fifteen (or more) teachers and gurus.[15] In hislong life he completed over 35 works, the largest andmostfamous of which is Tantrāloka, an encyclopaedic trea-tise on all the philosophical and practical aspects of Trikaand Kaula (known today as Kashmir Shaivism). Anotherone of his very important contributions was in the field ofphilosophy of aesthetics with his famous Abhinavabhāratīcommentary of Nāṭyaśāstra of Bharata Muni.[16]

In the 10th century Moksopaya or Moksopaya Shastra,a philosophical text on salvation for non-ascetics (moksa-upaya: 'means to release'), was written on the Pradyumnahill in Śrīnagar.[17][18] It has the form of a public sermonand claims human authorship and contains about 30,000shloka's (making it longer than the Ramayana). Themain part of the text forms a dialogue between Vasisthaand Rama, interchanged with numerous short stories andanecdotes to illustrate the content.[19][20] This text waslater (11th to the 14th century CE)[21] expanded andvedanticised, which resulted in the Yoga Vasistha.[22]

2.2 Muslim rule

Shams-ud-Din Shah Mir (reigned 1339–42) was a rulerof Kashmir and the founder of the Shah Miri dynastynamed after him. Sams’d-Din (ruled 1339-1342) alsoDhams-ud-din and ShahMir, was the firstMuslim rulerof Kashmir[23] and founder of the Shah Mir Dynasty.[24]Jonaraja, in his Dvitīyā Rājataraṅginī mentioned himas Sahamera. He came from sawat according to somesources. However, Jonaraja a credible historian informsus that Shahmir was not from Swat so some historianssay he was not from Swat but was a Kshatriya descendedfrom Arjuna whose ancestors had taken up Islam.

Shah Mir arrived in Kashmir in 1313 alongwith his family, during the reign of Suhadeva(1301-1320), whose service he entered. Insubsequent years, through his tact and abilityShah Mir rose to prominence and became oneof the most important personalities of his time.Later after the death in 1338 of Udayanadeva,the brother of Suhedeva he was able to assumethe kingship himself, Rinchan (d. 1323), acommander from Ladakh region who had en-tered Kashmir as a fugitive seized the throneof Kashmir, started his personal quest for re-ligion, was not accepted into Hinduism by theBrahmins due to his race, happened to watchSayyid Bilal (d.1327) at prayer, was enchantedby the simplicity of the Sayyid’s faith and em-braced it with fervour.[25]

Rinchan from Ladakh, and Lankar Chak from Dard ter-ritory near Gilgit came to Kashmir, and played a notablerole in the subsequent political history of the valley. Allthe three men were granted Jagirs by the King Rinchanfor three years became the ruler of Kashmir, Shah Mirwas the first rular of Shah mir dynasty, which had estab-lished in 1339.

2.3 Sikh rule

In 1819, the Kashmir valley passed from the controlof the Durrani Empire of Afghanistan, and four cen-turies ofMuslim rule under theMughals and the Afghans,to the conquering armies of the Sikhs under RanjitSingh of Lahore.[26] As the Kashmiris had suffered un-der the Afghans, they initially welcomed the new Sikhrulers.[27] However, the Sikh governors turned out tobe hard taskmasters, and Sikh rule was generally con-sidered oppressive,[28] protected perhaps by the remote-ness of Kashmir from the capital of the Sikh empire inLahore.[29] The Sikhs enacted a number of anti-Muslimlaws,[29] which included handing out death sentencesfor cow slaughter,[27] closing down the Jamia Masjid inSrinagar,[29] and banning the azaan, the public Muslimcall to prayer.[29] Kashmir had also now begun to attract

4 2 HISTORY

Gateway of enclosure, (once a Hindu temple) of Zein-ul-ab-ud-din’s Tomb, in Srinagar. Probable date A.D. 400 to 500, 1868.John Burke. Oriental and India Office Collection. British Li-brary.

Raja Gulab Singh, the Dogra ruler of Jammu, in a portrait madebefore he purchased the Kashmir valley from the British in 1846

European visitors, several of whom wrote of the abjectpoverty of the vast Muslim peasantry and of the exor-bitant taxes under the Sikhs.[27] High taxes, accordingto some contemporary accounts, had depopulated largetracts of the countryside, allowing only one-sixteenth ofthe cultivable land to be cultivated.[27] However, after afamine in 1832, the Sikhs reduced the land tax to half theproduce of the land and also began to offer interest-freeloans to farmers;[29] Kashmir became the second high-est revenue earner for the Sikh empire.[29] During this

time Kashmiri shawls became known worldwide, attract-ing many buyers, especially in the West.[29]

Earlier, in 1780, after the death of Ranjit Deo , the Rajaof Jammu, the kingdom of Jammu (to the south of theKashmir valley) was also captured by the Sikhs and after-wards, until 1846, became a tributary to Sikh power.[26]Ranjit Deo’s grandnephew, Gulab Singh, subsequentlysought service at the court of Ranjit Singh, distinguishedhimself in later campaigns, especially the annexation ofthe Kashmir valley, and, for his services, was appointedgovernor of Jammu in 1820. With the help of his offi-cer, Zorawar Singh, Gulab Singh soon captured for theSikhs the lands of Ladakh and Baltistan to the east andnorth-east, respectively, of Jammu.[26]

2.4 Princely state

1909 map of the Princely State of Kashmir and Jammu. Thenames of regions, important cities, rivers, and mountains are un-derlined in red.

In 1845, the First Anglo-Sikh War broke out. Accordingto the Imperial Gazetteer of India,

“Gulab Singh contrived to hold himselfaloof till the battle of Sobraon (1846), when heappeared as a useful mediator and the trustedadviser of Sir Henry Lawrence. Two treatieswere concluded. By the first the State of La-hore (i.e. West Punjab) handed over to theBritish, as equivalent for one crore indemnity,the hill countries between the rivers Beas andIndus; by the second the British made overto Gulab Singh for 7.5 million all the hilly ormountainous country situated to the east of the

2.5 1947 and 1948 5

Indus and the west of the Ravi (i.e. the Vale ofKashmir).”[26]

Drafted by a treaty and a bill of sale, and constitutedbetween 1820 and 1858, the Princely State of Kash-mir and Jammu (as it was first called) combined dis-parate regions, religions, and ethnicities:[30] to the east,Ladakh was ethnically and culturally Tibetan and its in-habitants practised Buddhism; to the south, Jammu hada mixed population of Hindus, Muslims and Sikhs; in theheavily populated central Kashmir valley, the populationwas overwhelmingly Sunni Muslim, however, there wasalso a small but influential Hindu minority, the Kashmiribrahmins or pandits; to the northeast, sparsely populatedBaltistan had a population ethnically related to Ladakh,but which practised Shi'a Islam; to the north, also sparselypopulated, Gilgit Agency, was an area of diverse, mostlyShi'a groups; and, to the west, Punch was Muslim, but ofdifferent ethnicity than the Kashmir valley.[30] After theIndian Rebellion of 1857, in which Kashmir sided withthe British, and the subsequent assumption of direct ruleby Great Britain, the princely state of Kashmir came un-der the suzerainty of the British Crown.In the British census of India of 1941, Kashmir registereda Muslim majority population of 77%, a Hindu popula-tion of 20% and a sparse population of Buddhists andSikhs comprising the remaining 3%.[31] That same year,Prem Nath Bazaz, a Kashmiri Pandit journalist wrote:“The poverty of the Muslim masses is appalling. ...Most are landless laborers, working as serfs for absentee[Hindu] landlords ... Almost the whole brunt of officialcorruption is borne by theMuslimmasses.”[32] For almosta century until the census, a small Hindu elite had ruledover a vast and impoverished Muslim peasantry.[31][33]Driven into docility by chronic indebtedness to land-lords and moneylenders, having no education besides, norawareness of rights,[31] the Muslim peasants had no po-litical representation until the 1930s.[33]

2.5 1947 and 1948

Further information: Kashmir conflict, Timeline of theKashmir conflict and Indo-Pakistani War of 1947Ranbir Singh’s grandson Hari Singh, who had ascendedthe throne of Kashmir in 1925, was the reigning monarchin 1947 at the conclusion of British rule of the subcon-tinent and the subsequent partition of the British IndianEmpire into the newly independent Union of India andthe Dominion of Pakistan. According to Burton Stein'sHistory of India,

“Kashmir was neither as large nor as oldan independent state as Hyderabad; it had beencreated rather off-handedly by the British afterthe first defeat of the Sikhs in 1846, as a re-ward to a former official who had sided with

The prevailing religions by district in the 1901 Census of the In-dian Empire.

the British. The Himalayan kingdom was con-nected to India through a district of the Pun-jab, but its population was 77 per cent Mus-lim and it shared a boundary with Pakistan.Hence, it was anticipated that the maharajawould accede to Pakistan when the Britishparamountcy ended on 14–15 August. Whenhe hesitated to do this, Pakistan launched aguerrilla onslaught meant to frighten its rulerinto submission. Instead the Maharaja ap-pealed to Mountbatten[34] for assistance, andthe governor-general agreed on the conditionthat the ruler accede to India. Indian sol-diers entered Kashmir and drove the Pakistani-sponsored irregulars from all but a small sec-tion of the state. The United Nations was theninvited to mediate the quarrel. The UN mis-sion insisted that the opinion of Kashmirismustbe ascertained, while India insisted that no ref-erendum could occur until all of the state hadbeen cleared of irregulars.”[35]

In the last days of 1948, a ceasefire was agreed underUN auspices. However, since the plebiscite demandedby the UN was never conducted, relations between Indiaand Pakistan soured,[35] and eventually led to two morewars over Kashmir in 1965 and 1999. India has con-trol of about half the area of the former princely stateof Jammu and Kashmir, while Pakistan controls a thirdof the region, the Northern Areas and Kashmir. Accord-ing to Encyclopædia Britannica, “Although there was aclear Muslim majority in Kashmir before the 1947 par-tition and its economic, cultural, and geographic conti-guity with the Muslim-majority area of the Punjab (inPakistan) could be convincingly demonstrated, the polit-ical developments during and after the partition resultedin a division of the region. Pakistan was left with ter-ritory that, although basically Muslim in character, wasthinly populated, relatively inaccessible, and economi-

6 3 DEMOGRAPHICS

cally underdeveloped. The largest Muslim group, situ-ated in the Valley of Kashmir and estimated to numbermore than half the population of the entire region, lay inIndian-administered territory, with its former outlets viathe Jhelum valley route blocked.”[36]

Topographic map of Kasmir

2.6 Current status and political divisions

Main articles: Aksai Chin, Azad Kashmir, Jammu andKashmir, Gilgit–Baltistan and Trans-Karakoram Tract

The eastern region of the former princely state of Kash-mir is also involved in a boundary dispute that began inthe late 19th century and continues into the 21st. Al-though some boundary agreements were signed betweenGreat Britain, Afghanistan and Russia over the northernborders of Kashmir, China never accepted these agree-ments, and China’s official position has not changed fol-lowing the communist revolution of 1949 that estab-lished the People’s Republic of China. By the mid-1950sthe Chinese army had entered the north-east portion ofLadakh.[36]

“By 1956–57 they had completed a militaryroad through the Aksai Chin area to providebetter communication between Xinjiang andwestern Tibet. India’s belated discovery of thisroad led to border clashes between the twocountries that culminated in the Sino-Indianwar of October 1962.”[36]

The region is divided amongst three countries in aterritorial dispute: Pakistan controls the northwest por-tion (Northern Areas and Kashmir), India controls thecentral and southern portion (Jammu and Kashmir) andLadakh, and the People’s Republic of China controlsthe northeastern portion (Aksai Chin and the Trans-Karakoram Tract). India controls the majority of theSiachen Glacier area, including the Saltoro Ridge passes,

whilst Pakistan controls the lower territory just southwestof the Saltoro Ridge. India controls 101,338 km2 (39,127sq mi) of the disputed territory, Pakistan controls 85,846km2 (33,145 sq mi), and the People’s Republic of Chinacontrols the remaining 37,555 km2 (14,500 sq mi).Jammu and Pakistan administered Kashmir lie outsidePir Panjal range, and are under Indian and Pakistanicontrol respectively. These are populous regions. Themain cities are Mirpur, Dadayal, Kotli, Bhimber Jammu,Muzaffarabad and Rawalakot. Gilgit–Baltistan, formerlyknown as the Northern Areas, is a group of territories inthe extreme north, bordered by the Karakoram, the west-ern Himalayas, the Pamir, and the Hindu Kush ranges.With its administrative centre in the town of Gilgit, theNorthern Areas cover an area of 72,971 square kilome-tres (28,174 sq mi) and have an estimated population ap-proaching 1 million (10 lakhs). The other main city isSkardu.Ladakh is a region in the east, between the Kunlun moun-tain range in the north and the main Great Himalayas tothe south.[37] Main cities are Leh and Kargil. It is underIndian administration and is part of the state of Jammuand Kashmir. It is one of the most sparsely populatedregions in the area and is mainly inhabited by peopleof Indo-Aryan and Tibetan descent.[37] Aksai Chin is avast high-altitude desert of salt that reaches altitudes upto 5,000 metres (16,000 ft). Geographically part of theTibetan Plateau, Aksai Chin is referred to as the SodaPlain. The region is almost uninhabited, and has no per-manent settlements.Though these regions are in practice administered by theirrespective claimants, neither India nor Pakistan has for-mally recognised the accession of the areas claimed bythe other. India claims those areas, including the area“ceded” to China by Pakistan in the Trans-KarakoramTract in 1963, are a part of its territory, while Pakistanclaims the entire region excluding Aksai Chin and Trans-Karakoram Tract. The two countries have fought severaldeclared wars over the territory. The Indo-Pakistani Warof 1947 established the rough boundaries of today, withPakistan holding roughly one-third of Kashmir, and In-dia one-half, with a dividing line of control establishedby the United Nations. The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965resulted in a stalemate and a UN-negotiated ceasefire.

3 Demographics

In the 1901 Census of the British Indian Empire, the pop-ulation of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu was2,905,578. Of these, 2,154,695 (74.16%) wereMuslims,689,073 (23.72%) Hindus, 25,828 (0.89%) Sikhs, and35,047 (1.21%) Buddhists (implying 935 (0.032%) oth-ers).Among the Muslims of the princely state, four divisionswere recorded: “Shaikhs, Saiyids, Mughals, and Pathans.

7

A Muslim shawl making family shown in Cashmere shawl man-ufactory, 1867, chromolith., William Simpson

A group of Kashmiri Pandits, natives of Kashmir Valley belongto one of the prominent Shaiva sects of Hinduism, shown in 1895

The Shaikhs, who are by far the most numerous, are thedescendants of Hindus, but have retained none of thecaste rules of their forefathers. They have clan namesknown as krams ...”[38] It was recorded that these kramnames included “Tantray”, “Shaikh”, “Bat”, “Mantu”,“Ganai”, “Dar”, “Damar”, “Lon”, etc. The Saiyids werefound to be the second most numerous group, it wasrecorded that they “could be divided into those who fol-low the profession of religion and those who have takento agriculture and other pursuits. Their kram name is'Mir.' While a Saiyid retains his saintly profession Mir isa prefix; if he has taken to agriculture, Mir is an affix tohis name.”[38] TheMughals who were not numerous wererecorded to have kram names like “Mir” (a corruption of

“Mirza”), “Beg”, “Bandi”, “Bach” and “Ashaye”. Finally,it was recorded that the Pathans “who are more numerousthan theMughals, ... are found chiefly in the south-west ofthe valley, where Pathan colonies have from time to timebeen founded. The most interesting of these coloniesis that of Kuki-Khel Afridis at Dranghaihama, who re-tain all the old customs and speak Pashtu.”[38] Amongthe main tribes of Muslims in the princely state are theButts, Dar, Lone, Jat, Gujjar, Rajput, Sudhan and Kha-tri. A small number of Butts, Dar and Lone use the titleKhawaja and the Khatri use the title Shaikh the Gujjaruse the title of Chaudhary. All these tribes are indige-nous of the princely state which converted to Islam fromHinduism during its arrival in region.The Hindus were found mainly in Jammu, where theyconstituted a little less than 60% of the population.[38]In the Kashmir Valley, the Hindus represented “524 inevery 10,000 of the population (i.e. 5.24%), and in thefrontier wazarats of Ladhakh and Gilgit only 94 out ofevery 10,000 persons (0.94%).”[38] In the same Cen-sus of 1901, in the Kashmir Valley, the total popula-tion was recorded to be 1,157,394, of which the Mus-lim population was 1,083,766, or 93.6% and the Hindupopulation 60,641.[38] Among the Hindus of Jammuprovince, who numbered 626,177 (or 90.87% of theHindu population of the princely state), the most im-portant castes recorded in the census were "Brahmans(186,000), the Rajputs (167,000), the Khattris (48,000)and the Thakkars (93,000).”[38]

In the 1911 Census of the British Indian Empire, the to-tal population of Kashmir and Jammu had increased to3,158,126. Of these, 2,398,320 (75.94%) were Mus-lims, 696,830 (22.06%) Hindus, 31,658 (1%) Sikhs,and 36,512 (1.16%) Buddhists. In the last census ofBritish India in 1941, the total population of Kashmir andJammu (which as a result of the secondworld war, was es-timated from the 1931 census) was 3,945,000. Of these,the total Muslim population was 2,997,000 (75.97%), theHindu population was 808,000 (20.48%), and the Sikh55,000 (1.39%).[39]

The Kashmiri Pandits, the only Hindus of the Kashmirvalley, who had stably constituted approximately 4 to 5%of the population of the valley during Dogra rule (1846–1947), and 20% of whom had left the Kashmir valleyby 1950,[40] began to leave in much greater numbers inthe 1990s. According to a number of authors, approxi-mately 100,000 of the total Kashmiri Pandit populationof 140,000 left the valley during that decade.[41] Otherauthors have suggested a higher figure for the exodus,ranging from the entire population of over 150[42] to 190thousand (1.5 to 190,000) of a total Pandit population of200 thousand (200,000)[43] to a number as high as 300thousand[44] (300,000).The total population of India’s division of Jammu andKashmir is 12,541,302[45] and Pakistan’s division ofKashmir is 2,580,000 and Gilgit-Baltistan is 870,347.[46]

8 7 NOTES

4 Culture and cuisine

Brokpa women from Kargil, northern Ladakh, in local costumes

Further information: Kashmiri cuisine, Wazwan,Kashmiri literature, Kashmiri music, and KashmiriPandit festivals

Kashmiri cuisine includes dum aloo (boiled potatoes withheavy amounts of spice), tzaman (a solid cottage cheese),rogan josh (lamb cooked in heavy spices), yakhiyn (lambcooked in curd with mild spices), hakh (a spinach-likeleaf), rista-gushtaba (minced meat balls in tomato andcurd curry), danival korme, and the signature rice whichis particular to Asian cultures. The traditional wazwanfeast involves cooking meat or vegetables, usually mut-ton, in several different ways. Alcohol is strictly prohib-ited in most places. There are two styles of making tea inthe region: Noon Chai, or salt tea, which is pink in colour(known as chinen posh rang or peach flower colour) andpopular with locals; and kahwah, a tea for festive occa-sions, made with saffron and spices (cardamom, cinamon,sugar, noon chai leaves), and black tea.

5 Economy

Further information: Economy of Azad Kashmir andEconomy of Jammu and KashmirKashmir’s economy is centred around agriculture. Tra-

Srinagar, the largest city of Kashmir

ditionally the staple crop of the valley was rice, whichformed the chief food of the people. In addition, Indian

corn, wheat, barley and oats were also grown. Given itstemperate climate, it is suited for crops like asparagus,artichoke, seakale, broad beans, scarletrunners, beetroot,cauliflower and cabbage. Fruit trees are common in thevalley, and the cultivated orchards yield pears, apples,peaches, and cherries. The chief trees are deodar, firsand pines, chenar or plane, maple, birch and walnut, ap-ple, cherry.Historically, Kashmir became known worldwide whenCashmere wool was exported to other regions and na-tions (exports have ceased due to decreased abundanceof the cashmere goat and increased competition fromChina). Kashmiris are well adept at knitting and makingPashmina shawls, silk carpets, rugs, kurtas, and pottery.Saffron, too, is grown in Kashmir. Efforts are on to ex-port the naturally grown fruits and vegetables as organicfoods mainly to theMiddle East. Srinagar is known for itssilver-work, papier mache, wood-carving, and the weav-ing of silk. The economy was badly damaged by the 2005Kashmir earthquake which, as of 8 October 2005, re-sulted in over 70,000 deaths in the Pakistan-controlledpart of Kashmir and around 1,500 deaths in Indian con-trolled Kashmir. The Indian-administered portion ofKashmir is believed to have potentially rich rocks con-taining hydrocarbon reserves.[47][48]

5.1 Transport

Transport is predominantly by air or road vehicles in theregion.[49] Kashmir has a 135 km (84 mi) long modernrailway line that started in October 2009, and was lastextended in 2013 and connects Baramulla in the westernpart of Kashmir to Srinagar and Banihal. It is expected tolink Kashmir to the rest of India after the construction ofthe railway line from Katra to Banihal is completed.[50]

6 See also

• Kashmir conflict

• Line of Control

• List of Jammu and Kashmir related articles

• List of Kashmiri people

7 Notes[1] “Jammu and Kashmir”. Britannica. Retrieved 24 March

2016.

[2] Basham, A. L. (2005) The wonder that was India, Pi-cador. Pp. 572. ISBN 0-330-43909-X, p. 110.

[3] Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. OxfordUniversity Press, Oxford and London. pp. 93–95.

9

[4] “A Comparative Dictionary of the Indo-Aryan Lan-guages”. Dsalsrv02.uchicago.edu. Retrieved 2015-05-29.

[5] A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass2000, page 256.

[6] A.K. Warder, Indian Buddhism. Motilal Banarsidass2000, pages 263–264.

[7] Tapasyananda, Swami (2002), Sankara-Dig-Vijaya, pp.186–195

[8] Triadic Heart of Shiva, Paul E. Muller-Ortega, page 12

[9] Introduction to the Tantrāloka, Navjivan Rastogi, page 27

[10] Re-accessing Abhinavagupta, Navjivan Rastogi, page 4

[11] Key to the Vedas, Nathalia Mikhailova, page 169

[12] The Pratyabhijñā Philosophy, Ganesh Vasudeo Tagare,page 12

[13] Companion to Tantra, S.C. Banerji, page 89

[14] Doctrine of Divine Recognition, K. C. Pandey, page V

[15] Introduction to the Tantrāloka, Navjivan Rastogi, page 35

[16] Luce dei Tantra, Tantrāloka, Abhinavagupta, RanieroGnoli, page LXXVII

[17] Slaje, Walter. (2005). “Locating the Mokṣopāya”, in:Hanneder, Jürgen (Ed.). The Mokṣopāya, Yogavāsiṣṭhaand Related Texts Aachen: Shaker Verlag. (IndologicaHalensis. Geisteskultur Indiens. 7). p. 35.

[18] Gallery – The journey to the Pradyumnaśikhara Archived23 December 2005 at the Wayback Machine.

[19] Leslie 2003, pp. 104–107

[20] Lekh Raj Manjdadria. (2002?) The State of Research todate on the Yogavastha (Moksopaya).

[21] Hanneder, Jürgen; Slaje, Walter. Moksopaya Project: In-troduction. Archived 28 December 2005 at the WaybackMachine.

[22] Chapple, Christopher; Venkatesananda (1984), “Intro-duction”, The Concise Yoga Vāsiṣṭha, Albany: State Uni-versity of New York Press, pp. x–xi, ISBN 0-87395-955-8, OCLC 11044869

[23] Concise Encyclopeida Of World History By CarlosRamirez-Faria, page 412

[24] The Pearson Indian History Manual for the UPSC CivilServices Page 104 “However, the situation changed withthe ending of the Hindu rule and founding of the Shah-miri dynasty by Shahmir or Dhams-ud-din (1339-1342).The devastating attack on Kashmir in 1320 by the Mon-gol leader, Dalucha, was a prelude to it. It is said ... TheSultan was himself a learned man, and composed poetry.He was ...”

[25] History of Civilizations of Central Asia Volume IV ByM.S. Asimov C E Bosworth Page 307

[26] Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. “Kashmir:History”. pp. 94–95.

[27] Schofield 2010, pp. 5–6

[28] Madan 2008, p. 15

[29] Zutshi 2003, pp. 39–41

[30] Bowers, Paul. 2004. “Kashmir”. Research Paper 4/28,International Affairs and Defence, House of CommonsLibrary, United Kingdom. Archived 26 March 2009 atthe Wayback Machine.

[31] Bose 2005, pp. 15–17

[32] Quoted in Bose 2005, pp. 15–17

[33] Talbot & Singh 2009, p. 54

[34] Viscount Louis Mountbatten, the last Viceroy of BritishIndia, stayed on in independent India from 1947 to 1948,serving as the first Governor-General of the Union of In-dia.

[35] Stein, Burton. 2010. A History of India. Oxford Univer-sity Press. 432 pages. ISBN 978-1-4051-9509-6. Page358.

[36] Kashmir. (2007). In Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved27 March 2007, from Encyclopædia Britannica Online.Archived 13 January 2008 at the Wayback Machine.

[37] Jina, Prem Singh (1996), Ladakh: The Land and the Peo-ple, Indus Publishing, ISBN 81-7387-057-8

[38] Imperial Gazetteer of India, volume 15. 1908. OxfordUniversity Press, Oxford and London. pp. 99–102.

[39] Brush, J. E. 1949. “The Distribution of Religious Com-munities in India” Annals of the Association of AmericanGeographers, 39(2):81–98.

[40] Zutshi 2003, p. 318 Quote: “Since a majority of the land-lords were Hindu, the (land) reforms (of 1950) led to amass exodus of Hindus from the state. ... The unsettlednature of Kashmir’s accession to India, coupled with thethreat of economic and social decline in the face of theland reforms, led to increasing insecurity among the Hin-dus in Jammu, and among Kashmiri Pandits, 20 per centof whom had emigrated from the Valley by 1950.”

[41] Bose 1997, p. 71, Rai 2004, p. 286, Metcalf & Metcalf2006, p. 274 Quote: “The Hindu Pandits, a small but in-fluential elite community who had secured a favourableposition, first under the maharajas, and then under thesuccessive Congress regimes, and proponents of a distinc-tive Kashmiri culture that linked them to India, felt undersiege as the uprising gathered force. Of a population ofsome 140,000, perhaps 100,000 Pandits fled the state af-ter 1990; their cause was quickly taken up by the Hinduright.”

[42] Malik 2005, p. 318

[43] Madan 2008, p. 25

[44] CIA Factbook: India–Transnational Issues

10 8 CITED REFERENCES

[45] “India, Jammu and Kashmir population statistics”. Geo-Hive. Retrieved 2015-05-29.

[46] “Pakistan population statistics”. GeoHive. Retrieved2015-05-29.

[47] Iftikhar Gilani. “Italian company to pursue oil explorationin Kashmir”. Daily Times. Archived from the original on6 June 2011. Retrieved 20 November 2009.

[48] Ishfaq-ul-Hassan. “India, Pakistan to explore oil jointly”.Daily News and Analysis. Retrieved 20 November 2009.

[49] “Local Transport in Kashmir – Means of Transporta-tion Kashmir – Mode of Transportation Kashmir India”.Bharatonline.com. Retrieved 3 August 2012.

[50] “How to Reach Kashmir by Train, Air, Bus?". Baa-par.com. Retrieved 22 January 2016.

8 Cited references

• Bose, Sugata; Jalal, Ayesha (2003), Modern SouthAsia: History, Culture, Political Economy, Londonand New York: Routledge, 2nd edition. Pp. xiii,304, ISBN 0-415-30787-2.

• Bose, Sumantra (1997), The Challenge in Kashmir:Democracy, Self Determination and a Just Peace,New Delhi: Sage Publications. Pp. 211, ISBN 0-8039-9350-1

• Bose, Sumantra (2005), Kashmir: roots of conflict,paths to peace, Harvard University Press. Pp. 307,ISBN 978-0-674-01817-4

• Brown, Judith M. (1994), Modern India: The Ori-gins of an Asian Democracy, Oxford and New York:Oxford University Press. Pp. xiii, 474, ISBN 0-19-873113-2.

• Copland, Ian (2002), Princes of India in theEndgame of Empire, 1917–1947, Cambridge Stud-ies in Indian History & Society. Cambridge andLondon: Cambridge University Press. Pp. 316,ISBN 0-521-89436-0.

• Evans, Alexander (2008), “Kashmiri Exceptional-ism”, in Rao, Aparna, The Valley of Kashmir: TheMaking and Unmaking of a Composite Culture?,Delhi: Manohar. Pp. xviii, 758, pp. 713–741,ISBN 978-81-7304-751-0

• Kaw, Mushtaq A. (2008), “Land Rights in Ru-ral Kashmir: A Study in Continuity and Changefrom Late-Sixteenth to Late-Twentieth Centuries”,in Rao, Aparna, The Valley of Kashmir: The Mak-ing and Unmaking of a Composite Culture?, Delhi:Manohar. Pp. xviii, 758, pp. 207–234, ISBN 978-81-7304-751-0

• Keenan, Brigid (1989), Travels in Kashmir: A Pop-ular History of Its People, Places, and Crafts, Delhi:Oxford University Press. Pp. xii, 226, ISBN 0-19-562236-7

• Khan, Mohammad Ishaq (2008), “Islam, State andSociety in Medieval Kashmir: A Revaluation ofMir Sayyid Ali Hamadani’s Historical Role”, inRao, Aparna, The Valley of Kashmir: The Mak-ing and Unmaking of a Composite Culture?, Delhi:Manohar. Pp. xviii, 758, pp. 97–198, ISBN 978-81-7304-751-0

• Khan, Yasmin (2007), The Great Partition: TheMaking of India and Pakistan, New Haven and Lon-don: Yale University Press, 250 pages, ISBN 0-300-12078-8

• Kulke, Hermann; Rothermund, Dietmar (2004), AHistory of India, 4th edition. Routledge, Pp. xii,448, ISBN 0-415-32920-5.

• Lamb, Alastair (1991), Kashmir: a disputed legacy,1846–1990, Oxford University Press. Pp. 368,ISBN 978-0-19-577423-8

• Lamb, Alastair (1997), Incomplete partition: thegenesis of the Kashmir dispute 1947–1948, Roxford.Pp. 374, ISBN 0-907129-08-0

• Madan, T. N. (2008), “Kashmir, Kashmiris, Kash-miriyat: An Introductory Essay”, in Rao, Aparna,The Valley of Kashmir: The Making and Unmakingof a Composite Culture?, Delhi: Manohar. Pp. xviii,758, pp. 1–36, ISBN 978-81-7304-751-0

• Malik, Iffat (2005), Kashmir: Ethnic Conflict, Inter-national Dispute, Karachi and Oxford: Oxford Uni-versity Press. Pp. xxvi, 392, ISBN 0-19-579622-5

• Metcalf, Barbara; Metcalf, Thomas R. (2006),A Concise History of Modern India (CambridgeConcise Histories), Cambridge and New York:Cambridge University Press. Pp. xxxiii, 372, ISBN0-521-68225-8.

• Rai, Mridu (2004), Hindu Rulers, Muslim Subjects:Islam, Rights, and the History of Kashmir, PrincetonUniversity Press/Permanent Black. Pp. xii, 335.,ISBN 81-7824-202-8

• Ramusack, Barbara (2004), The Indian Princes andtheir States (The New Cambridge History of In-dia), Cambridge and London: Cambridge Univer-sity Press. Pp. 324, ISBN 0-521-03989-4

• Rao, Aparna, ed. (2008), The Valley of Kashmir:The Making and Unmaking of a Composite Culture?,Delhi: Manohar. Pp. xviii, 758, ISBN 978-81-7304-751-0

11

• Reynolds, Nathalène (2008), “Revisiting KeyEpisodes in Modern Kashmir History”, in Rao,Aparna, The Valley of Kashmir: The Makingand Unmaking of a Composite Culture?, Delhi:Manohar. Pp. xviii, 758, pp. 563–604, ISBN978-81-7304-751-0

• Schaffer, Howard B. (2009), The Limits of Influ-ence: America’s Role in Kashmir, Brookings Institu-tion Press/Viking Penguin India. Pp. xii, 272, ISBN978-0-670-08372-5

• Schofield, Victoria (2010), Kashmir in conflict: In-dia, Pakistan and the unending war, I. B. Tauris. Pp.xvi, 318, ISBN 978-1-84885-105-4

• Stein, Burton (2001), AHistory of India, New Delhiand Oxford: Oxford University Press. Pp. xiv, 432,ISBN 0-19-565446-3.

• Talbot, Ian; Singh, Gurharpal (2009), The Partitionof India, Cambridge University Press. Pp. xviii,206, ISBN 978-0-521-76177-2

• Witzel, Michael (2008), “The Kashmiri Pandits:Their Early History”, in Rao, Aparna, The Valleyof Kashmir: The Making and Unmaking of a Com-posite Culture?, Delhi: Manohar. Pp. xviii, 758, pp.37–96, ISBN 978-81-7304-751-0

• Wolpert, Stanley (2006), Shameful Flight: The LastYears of the British Empire in India, Oxford andNewYork: Oxford University Press. Pp. 272, ISBN 0-19-515198-4.

• Zutshi, Chitralekha (2003), Language of belonging:Islam, regional identity, and the making of Kashmir,OxfordUniversity Press/Permanent Black. Pp. 359,ISBN 978-0-19-521939-5

• Zutshi, Chitraleka (2008), “Shrines, Political Au-thority, and Religious Identities in Late-Nineteenthand Early-Twentieth-century Kashmir”, in Rao,Aparna, The Valley of Kashmir: The Makingand Unmaking of a Composite Culture?, Delhi:Manohar. Pp. xviii, 758, pp. 235–258, ISBN 978-81-7304-751-0

9 Further reading

• Blank, Jonah. “Kashmir–Fundamentalism TakesRoot”, Foreign Affairs, 78,6 (November/December1999): 36–42.

• Drew, Federic. 1877. The Northern Barrier of In-dia: a popular account of the Jammoo and Kash-mir Territories with Illustrations; 1st edition: EdwardStanford, London. Reprint: Light & Life Publish-ers, Jammu. 1971.

• Evans, Alexander. Why Peace Won't Come toKashmir, Current History (Vol 100, No 645) April2001 p. 170-175.

• Hussain, Ijaz. 1998. “Kashmir Dispute: An In-ternational Law Perspective”, National Institute ofPakistan Studies.

• Irfani, Suroosh, ed “Fifty Years of the Kashmir Dis-pute": Based on the proceedings of the InternationalSeminar held at Muzaffarabad, Azad Jammu andKashmir 24–25 August 1997: University of AzadJammu and Kashmir, Muzaffarabad, AJK, 1997.

• Joshi, Manoj Lost Rebellion: Kashmir in theNineties (Penguin, New Delhi, 1999).

• Khan, L. Ali The Kashmir Dispute: A Planfor Regional Cooperation 31 Columbia Journal ofTransnational Law, 31, p. 495 (1994).

• Knight, E. F. 1893. Where Three Empires Meet: ANarrative of Recent Travel in: Kashmir, Western Ti-bet, Gilgit, and the adjoining countries. Longmans,Green, and Co., London. Reprint: Ch'eng WenPublishing Company, Taipei. 1971.

• Knight, William, Henry. 1863. Diary of a Pedes-trian in Cashmere and Thibet. Richard Bentley, Lon-don. Reprint 1998: Asian Educational Services,New Delhi.

• Köchler, Hans. The Kashmir Problem between Lawand Realpolitik. Reflections on a Negotiated Set-tlement. Keynote speech delivered at the “GlobalDiscourse on Kashmir 2008.” European Parliament,Brussels, 1 April 2008.

• Moorcroft, William and Trebeck, George. 1841.Travels in the Himalayan Provinces of Hindustanand the Panjab; in Ladakh and Kashmir, in Pe-shawar, Kabul, Kunduz, and Bokhara... from 1819to 1825, Vol. II. Reprint: New Delhi, Sagar Publi-cations, 1971.

• Neve, Arthur. (Date unknown). The Tourist’s Guideto Kashmir, Ladakh, Skardo &c. 18th Edition. Civiland Military Gazette, Ltd., Lahore. (The date ofthis edition is unknown – but the 16th edition waspublished in 1938).

• Stein, M. Aurel. 1900. Kalhaṇa’s Rājataraṅgiṇī–AChronicle of the Kings of Kaśmīr, 2 vols. London, A.Constable &Co. Ltd. 1900. Reprint, Delhi, MotilalBanarsidass, 1979.

• Younghusband, Francis and Molyneux, Edward1917. Kashmir. A. & C. Black, London.

• Norelli-Bachelet, Patrizia. “Kashmir and the Con-vergence of Time, Space and Destiny”, 2004; ISBN

12 10 EXTERNAL LINKS

0-945747-00-4. First published as a four-part se-ries, March 2002 – April 2003, in 'Prakash', a re-view of the Jagat Guru BhagavaanGopinath Ji Char-itable Foundation.

• Muhammad Ayub. An Army; Its Role & Rule (AHistory of the Pakistan Army from Independenceto Kargil 1947–1999) Rosedog Books, Pittsburgh,Pennsylvania USA 2005. ISBN 0-8059-9594-3.

10 External links• Kashmir Information Portal

• Instrument of Accession

• United Nations Military Observers Group in Kash-mir

• Official website of the Jammu and Kashmir Govern-ment (Indian-administered Kashmir)

• Official website of the Azad Jammu and KashmirGovernment (Pakistan-administered Kashmir)

• (Kashmir resources)

• Kashmir Watch: Kashmir Conflict News Source

Coordinates: 34°30′N 76°00′E / 34.5°N 76°E

13

11 Text and image sources, contributors, and licenses

11.1 Text• Kashmir Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kashmir?oldid=712314479 Contributors: Paul Drye, Mav, Bryan Derksen, Zundark, The

Anome, Taw, Jeronimo, Rjstott, Rmhermen, Nate Silva, SJK, Karen Johnson, Roadrunner, SimonP, Graft, Heron, B4hand, Vovkav~enwiki,Leandrod, D, Michael Hardy, Rbjoshi, Mic, Ixfd64, Delirium, (, Gbleem, Ahoerstemeier, Snoyes, Jschwa1, Andres, Jiang, Ruhrjung,Mxn, Vivin, Charles Matthews, RickK, Dysprosia, WhisperToMe, PakAtheist, Saltine, VeryVerily, Ed g2s, Shizhao, Babaloulou, John-leemk, Huangdi, John Hickman, PuzzletChung, Robbot, Altaar, Moriori, LibertarianAnarchist, Democrate2003, Akajune, Kristof vt,RedWolf, Moncrief, Conradx, Goethean, Altenmann, Chancemill, Merovingian, Sverdrup, Henrygb, Academic Challenger, Hemanshu, Rr-janbiah, Jeroen, Hadal, UtherSRG, Wereon, Michael Snow, Ambarish, DigiBullet, Dawoodmajoka, Sunilfotedar, Isam, Mintleaf~enwiki,Nichalp, Muscicapa, Everyking, Zora, Henry Flower, Niteowlneils, Gzornenplatz, Tagishsimon, Ragib, Chaerani, Bookcat, Wmahan, Co-matose51, Utcursch, LordSimonofShropshire, Sohailstyle, Beland, Ravikiran r, Nograpes, Ata-ur-Rahman, DragonflySixtyseven, MarcMongenet, Sam Hocevar, Arcturus, Neutrality, Mschlindwein, Zeman, Zondor, Canterbury Tail, Perey, Jayjg, Shamino, Juan Pon-deras, Freelanceresearch, Rctay, Chaipau, Discospinster, Rich Farmbrough, Guanabot, KittySaturn, Vsmith, Freestylefrappe, Silence,YUL89YYZ, Dbachmann, WarEagleTH, Grutter, TheOuthouseMouse, Bender235, Sc147, MisterSheik, CanisRufus, Alren, MBisanz,El C, Kwamikagami, -jkb-, Aude, Triona, EmilJ, Bobo192, Avataran, Cmdrjameson, Acntx, Sabretooth, Giraffedata, Yuje, Petersen,Chirag, La goutte de pluie, Sasquatch, SecretAgentMan00, Andrewbadr, Idleguy, Sam Korn, Pharos, Ultra megatron, Nsaa, Perceval,Espoo, Evaa, Anthony Appleyard, Lucio Mas, Richard Harvey, Wiki-uk, Mr Adequate, Omerlives, Hipocrite, Andrewpmk, Sligocki,Bart133, Helixblue, Evil Monkey, Rhialto, Recury, Nightstallion, Blaxthos, Nauman, TShilo12, Mhazard9, A D Monroe III, Rohitde,Boothy443, Firsfron, Jeffrey O. 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14 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

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11.2 Images• File:Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/47/Brit_IndianEmpireReligions3.

jpg License: Public domain Contributors: The Imperial Gazetteer of India, Oxford University Press, 1909. Scanned frompersonal copy and annotated by me (<a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='en:User:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw'title='en:User talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>«Talk»</a> 04:16, 19 March 2007 (UTC)) Original artist: John GeorgeBartholomew

• File:Buddhist_tope_baramula1868.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/16/Buddhist_tope_baramula1868.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: British Museum Original artist: John Burke

• File:Commons-logo.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Contribu-tors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9a/Flag_of_Afghanistan.svg License: CC0Contributors: http://openclipart.org/detail/24112/flag-of-afghanistan-by-anonymous-24112 Original artist:

• User:Zscout370• File:Flag_of_Azad_Kashmir.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4d/Flag_of_Azad_Kashmir.svg License:

Public domain Contributors: This vector image was created with Inkscape. Original artist: Himasaram• File:Flag_of_Brunei.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9c/Flag_of_Brunei.svg License: CC0 Contribu-

tors: From the Open Clip Art website. Original artist: User:Nightstallion• File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/83/Flag_of_Cambodia.svg License: CC0 Con-

tributors: File:Flag_of_Cambodia.svg Original artist: Draw new flag by User: _• File:Flag_of_India.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/4/41/Flag_of_India.svg License: Public domain Contributors:

? Original artist: ?• File:Flag_of_Japan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/9/9e/Flag_of_Japan.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-

nal artist: ?• File:Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c7/Flag_of_Kyrgyzstan.svg License: Public

domain Contributors: Drawn by User:SKopp, construction sheet. Redo by: cs:User:-xfi- Original artist: Made by Andrew Duhan for theSodipodi SVG flag collection, and is public domain.

• File:Flag_of_Malaysia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Flag_of_Malaysia.svg License: Publicdomain Contributors: Create based on the Malaysian Government Website (archive version)Original artist: SKopp, Zscout370 and Ranking Update

11.2 Images 15

• File:Flag_of_North_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Flag_of_North_Korea.svg License:Public domain Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_Pakistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Flag_of_Pakistan.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: The drawing and the colors were based from flagspot.net. Original artist: User:Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_Russia.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg License: PD Contributors: ? Origi-nal artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_South_Korea.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Flag_of_South_Korea.svg License:Public domain Contributors: Ordinance Act of the Law concerning the National Flag of the Republic of Korea, Construction and colorguidelines (Russian/English) ← This site is not exist now.(2012.06.05) Original artist: Various

• File:Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d0/Flag_of_Tajikistan.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Flag_of_Thailand.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a9/Flag_of_Thailand.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: Own work Original artist: Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_Vietnam.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/21/Flag_of_Vietnam.svg License: Public do-main Contributors: http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/law/vi/1951_to_1960/1955/195511/195511300001 http://vbqppl.moj.gov.vn/vbpq/Lists/Vn%20bn%20php%20lut/View_Detail.aspx?ItemID=820 Original artist: Lưu Ly vẽ lại theo nguồn trên

• File:Flag_of_the_People’{}s_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/fa/Flag_of_the_People%27s_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: Own work, http://www.protocol.gov.hk/flags/eng/n_flag/design.html Original artist: Drawn by User:SKopp, redrawn by User:Denelson83 and User:Zscout370

• File:Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/99/Flag_of_the_Philippines.svg Li-cense: Public domain Contributors: The design was taken from [1] and the colors were also taken from a Government website Originalartist: User:Achim1999

• File:Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/72/Flag_of_the_Republic_of_China.svg License: Public domain Contributors: [1] Original artist: User:SKopp

• File:Gulabsingh1840.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/34/Gulabsingh1840.jpg License: Public domainContributors: Transferred from en.wikipedia to Commons by Off2riorob using CommonsHelper. Original artist: The original uploader wasIdleguy at English Wikipedia

• File:Jammu-Kashmir-flag.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Jammu-Kashmir-flag.svg License: Pub-lic domain Contributors: Self-created Original artist: Self-created; flag created by Jammu and Kashmir National Conference

• File:Karakash_River_in_the_Western_Kunlun_Shan,_seen_from_the_Tibet-Xinjiang_highway.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e5/Karakash_River_in_the_Western_Kunlun_Shan%2C_seen_from_the_Tibet-Xinjiang_highway.jpg License: Copyrighted free use Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:KashmirPundit1895BritishLibrary.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/3/39/KashmirPundit1895BritishLibrary.jpg License: PD-US Contributors:Image downloaded from this British Library web site (see also this site for information) by <a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler' title='User:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Fowler%26fowler' title='User talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>«Talk»</a> 02:46, 19 June 2012 (UTC) Original artist:Unknown photographer

• File:Kashmir_Ladakh_women_in_local_costume.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/09/Kashmir_Ladakh_women_in_local_costume.jpg License: CC BY 2.0 Contributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Kashmir_region_2004.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/68/Kashmir_region_2004.jpg License:Public domain Contributors: http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/middle_east_and_asia/kashmir_region_2004.jpg Original artist: CIA

• File:Kashmir_top.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e0/Kashmir_top.jpg License: CC-BY-SA-3.0 Con-tributors: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Kashmir_top.jpg Original artist: BorgQueen (

• File:Muslim-shawl-makers-kashmir1867.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/06/Muslim-shawl-makers-kashmir1867.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: This chromolithograph is taken from plate 2 ofWilliam Simpson’s 'India: Ancient and Modern'. Downloaded from the British Library Web Site.Original artist: William Simpson

• File:NWFP-Kashmir1909-a.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/0/08/NWFP-Kashmir1909-a.jpg License: PDContributors: ? Original artist: ?

• File:Nanga_parbat,_Pakistan_by_gul791.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Nanga_parbat%2C_Pakistan_by_gul791.jpg License: Copyrighted free use Contributors: http://www.sxc.hu/photo/341372 Original artist: Atif Gulzar

• File:Pahalgam_Valley.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f6/Pahalgam_Valley.jpg License: CC BY-SA3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: KennyOMG

• File:Pandit_woman_1922_vintage_by_Vishwanath.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cd/Pandit_woman_1922_vintage_by_Vishwanath.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Unknown Original artist: Pandit Vishwanath

• File:Srinagar_pano.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/e8/Srinagar_pano.jpg License: CC BY-SA 3.0Contributors: Own work Original artist: KennyOMG

• File:Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/51/Sun_temple_martand_indogreek.jpg License: Public domain Contributors: Downloaded from the British Museum website by <a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='en:User:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>Fowler&fowler</a><a href='//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/User_talk:Fowler%26fowler' class='extiw' title='en:User talk:Fowler,<span>,&,</span>,fowler'>«Talk»</a> 15:20, 19 March2007 (UTC) Original artist: John Burke (died 1900)

• File:Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/dd/Wikivoyage-Logo-v3-icon.svg Li-cense: CC BY-SA 3.0 Contributors: Own work Original artist: AleXXw

• File:Zeinulabuddin-tomb-srinagar1866.JPG Source: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/07/Zeinulabuddin-tomb-srinagar1866.JPG License: Public domain Contributors: British Library Original artist: John Burke

16 11 TEXT AND IMAGE SOURCES, CONTRIBUTORS, AND LICENSES

11.3 Content license• Creative Commons Attribution-Share Alike 3.0