Day1 4 kirchner_stampriet

(SAB)

STAMPRIET ARTESIAN BASIN

A Transboundary Aquifer System

INT

RO

DU

CT

ION

Division Geohydrology Department of Water Affairs Namibia

4

SAB LOCATION

RED DUNES

WIDE VALLEYS

INT

RO

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CT

ION

SHEEP FARMING

Cour

tesy

Agr

iFor

um

Irrigation 46%

Domestic 16%

Stock Watering 38%

and IRRIGATION IN

TR

OD

UC

TIO

N

INT

RO

DU

CT

ION


7

SAB LOCATION

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CT

ION


8

SAB LOCATION

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CT

ION


9

SAB LOCATION

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DU

CT

ION


10

SAB LOCATION

INT

RO

DU

CT

ION


11

SAB LOCATION

Hoachanas

INT

RO

DU

CT

ION

MOSTELY DRYSOMETIMES FLOODED

INT

RO

DU

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ARTESIAN FREE-FLOWING WATER

HIS

TO

RY

A CENTURY OF INVESTIGATIONS Paul Range discovered the SAB in 1912 Irrigation Department drilled in the

1920s Frommurze investigated in the 1930s DWA drilled after World War II K. Schalk investigated a cloud break in

1960 H. Martin researched for the Coal

Commission (1961) Oil and Coal exploration (1960s – 1980s) Geochemistry, Geohydrology, Isotopes

(CSIR, Tredoux, Kirchner & Vogel (1965-1982)

J. Nawrowski explored Abstraction and Irrigation (1980s - 1990s)

JICA – PCI SE Kalahari Groundwater Evaluation and Management Plan (2002)

J. Kirchner: IAEA RAF 8/029 (Isotope studies, 2002)

Bäumle: Stampriet Groundwater Model (2005)

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Y

CONCEPTUAL MODEL

N-S SECTION BY HENNO MARTIN ALONG BOTSWANA BORDER (1956)

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OL

OG

Y

FENCE DIAGRAM

GE

OL

OG

Y

N-S SECTION BY ROY MILLERALONG BOTSWANA BORDER (2001) G

EO

LO

GY

S a n d , g ra v e l , c a lc re te C a lc re te -c e m e n te d c o n g lo m e ra te W (= w a te r st rik e s)

B a sa lt W

D o le ri te (W a t U & L c o n ta c ts )

Va ric o lo u re d sa n d s to n e , s h a le , y e l lo w sh a le , c o a l , b la c k sh a le W W

G re y sh a le

Ye l lo w sh a le

W h ite h i ll; b la c k sh a le , b la c k lim e s to n e

G re y sh a le

U S s ; c o a r s e g ra in e d ; m e d iu m to fin e g ra in e d (A 5 ) W

U c o a l, b la c k sh a le

M S s ; m e d iu m to fin e g ra in e d (A 3 ) W

L c o a l , b la c k s h a le

L S s ; c o a r s e g ra in e d ; m e d . to fin e g ra in e d (A 1 ) W

U M u k . s a n d sto n e ; m e d iu m to f in e g ra in e d W ?

U M u k . s a n d sto n e - s ilt sto n e - sh a le , b io tu rb a te d

M u k o ro b s h a le , g re y to b la c k

U N o s so b s a n d sto n e ; m e d iu m to c o a rs e W

U N o s so b s a n d sto n e ; f in e g ra in e d

U N o s so b s il ts to n e - sh a le

L N o ss o b s a n d sto n e ; m e d iu m to c o a rs e W

L N o ss o b s a n d sto n e ; fin e g ra in e d

L N o ss o b s il ts to n e - sh a le

M u d sto n e , g re y, w ith d ro p s to n e s

T i llit e

U N a m a - R e d sa n d s to n e , sh a le

L N a m a – g re y s h a le s, s a n d s to n e s K a m tsa s – p in k a rk o se s

K A L K R A N D (Ju rassic to Triassic)

R IE T M O N D (P erm ian)

A U O B (P erm ian)

M U K O R O B (P erm ian)

N O S S O B (P erm ian)

D W Y K A (C arbonife rous)

P R E -K A R O O

(C am bria n)

KAROO

K A L A H A R I (Ter tia ry to Q uaternary)

GE

OL

OG

Y

NINE AQUIFERS INSTEAD OF ONE:


B a sa lt W



G re y sh a le

Ye l lo w sh a le


G re y sh a le
















T i llit e





A U O B (P erm ian)




P R E -K A R O O

(C am bria n)

KAROO


GE

OL

OG

Y

KALAHARIBASALT

NEU LOORE

RIETMONDAUOB

MUKOROBNOSSOB

TEN AQUIFERS INSTEAD OF ONE:

21

KALAHARI BASE

GE

OL

OG

Y

CIS- AND TRANSNOSSOB?

after Roy Miller (2002)

NAMALAND

Mapped by Range, 1906 - 1910

GE

OL

OG

Y

FIRST ARTESIAN WATER WAS STRUCK IN 1912

110 m3/h free flowing artesian borehole

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CONCEPTUAL RECHARGE MODEL

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CSIRSAB

SAMPLING SITES

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WATER QUALITY MAP

TDS SO

4 NO3

F

The South West Africa Steering Committee for Water Research initiated a Water Quality Map Project in the second half of the 1960s. In the SAB about 4000 water points were sampled and other borehole and water use information collected.

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FIRST HP DATABASE, STARTED IN 1988

SAB HYDROCENSUS RESULTS

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c CHECK# DesS NU# U

2 holes390 holes955 holes

4915 holes

Stampriet Artesian BasinHydroCensus Results

DISTRIBUTION OF BOREHOLES

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ORIGINAL ANDRECONCILED DATA SETS

Old DBCSIRHydroCensusGROWAS

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SODIUM ADSORPTION RATIO

SAR ratios of artesian and subartesian boreholesGenerally better quality in the western (Cisnossob) half of the basin

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14CAPPARENT

AGE

Young Auob water in the CisNossob20 000 years older water in the TransNossob

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MONITORING

BOREHOLES

IN THESAB

WATER LEVEL MONITORING

1182 coordinates of Water-level Monitoring boreholes were captured in an M/S Access file during the Quantification Project (the file is attached to GRIM).

It contains more than 1.1 Mio water levels measured between July 1907 and January 2011.

I addition to that numerous water-level recorder charts are stored in Geohydrology’s Record Room

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ABSTRACTION DATA

Abstraction data are available for the NamWater schemes (Aranos, Leonardville, Stampriet, Gochas and Kries)

Some production data may be found in the files of DWA Law Administration

Bases on farm size, carrying capacity the abstraction for stock watering can be calculated.

Some info is in the 2001 Hydrocensus files

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AQUIFER PARAMETERS

During the JICA project 1999 to 2002 boreholes into Kalahari; Auob; and Nossob aquifers were drilled at 13 sites. From pumping tests of these holes, T- and S- values are available

Values from older observation holes at Olifantswater W; Tugela and Galton are also on record.

Some holes drilled by DWA during the JICA and IAEA projects have also been pump tested.

Vogel had the permeability of a core sample determined.

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UHLENHORST CLOUD BURST24-25 FEBRUARY

1960

Schalk (1960) calculated the amount of water that infiltrated after the cloudburst as approximately:

Q = 100 * 106 [m3]

but did not estimate the proportion that might have reached the artesian aquifers.

The artesian water abstraction then was estimated at 44 000 m3/d or 16 * 106 [m3/a]

SAB RECHARGE (SCHALK)

Vogel et al. (1982) applied Darcy’s Law:

Q = kD * b * i [m3/d]using an average gradient i = 1/1000, an average transmissivity kD = 11.3 m2/d and an aquifer width b = 55 km above Stampriet. This resulted in an average annual recharge rate for the Stampriet surrounding of:

Q = 0.68 * 106 [m3/a]

SAB RECHARGE (VOGEL ET AL.)

We do have such events from time to time

Mariental flood 2006

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APRIL 2001

MARCH 2000

PCI (2002) have calculated the combined recharge for all three aquifers using different approaches:

1. Modeling (a)1): 21 * 106 [m3/a]2. Modeling (b): 87 * 106 [m3/a]3. Water Balance (a): 105 * 106

[m3/a]4. Water Balance (b): 341 * 106

[m3/a]5. Water Balance (c): 1 550 * 106

[m3/a]

The 4 to 15 times varying values allow not to decide on a correct mean recharge rate.

SAB RECHARGE (PCI)

1) Modeling 1: ordinary year; 2: 1:50 year. Balance excluding losses (a): ordinary year CMBM, (b): 1:50 year CMBM, (c): 1:50 year assuming normal transpiration, withdrawal & groundwater flow

LEAKING BOREHOLE

-35.00

-30.00

-25.00

-20.00

-15.00

-10.00

-5.00

0.00

Wa

ter

Le

vel (

mb

gl)

09/09/77 @12H25; DGR=9.68m - measured by T. da Silva

09/09/77 @ 14H00; DGR=27.27m - measured by T. da Silva "complete maintance BH, water sample"

Auob W-L

Kalahari W-L

Estimated 20 - 25 m drop of Water-level(Auob leaking into Kalahari)

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LEGISLATION: WATER ACT

Water Resources Management Act (2013) Water Resources Management Act (2004)Water Act (1956)

Water Supply and Sanitation Policy (1993) NamWater Act (1997) National Water Policy White Paper (2000) Water Supply and Sanitation Policy (2008)

The Water Acts of 2004 and 2013 have been promulgated but not enacted. The Water Act of 1956 is still applicable.OTHER LEGAL AND POLICY

DOCUMENTATION

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GROUNDWATER CONTROL AREAS

Amongst others the Stampriet Artesian Basin (SAB) is a Groundwater Control Area. Regulations require that: A permit is obtained to drill a borehole.

• If drilled into the artesian aquifer the borehole must be cased and the casing be sealed in the overlying aquiclude.

A permit is furthermore required for irrigation of areas > 1 ha.• If the permit is granted monthly

abstraction quantities must be supplied to Water Affairs.

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IRRIGATION IN THE STAMPRIET ARTESIAN BASIN

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PRACTICAL PROBLEMS

Many farmers tend not to comply fully with the regulations:

Boreholes are drilled or deepened without a permit

Casing requirements are not complied with

Abstraction readings are not supplied

In order for the GROWAS database to get up to date, a closer cooperation with the farmers is crucial and recent visits show that most of the irrigation farmers are not fully informed about the rules and regulations concerning their irrigation abstraction permit or mislead by the former owners of the former neighbors. Field investigations and the direct interaction with farmers . . are appreciated by almost all farmers. Many of the farmers visited in the Upper Hardap Region had no idea of a WW number belonging to their boreholes and had no platelets attached to the boreholes.

•Through common hearsay by farmer visited on this area it seems that there has been a (Foul Worm) in the whole process from the beginning and that many feel that the current water committee in this area favors some above others and turn the irrigation quotas of those not in their favor down.•Some farmers told us that abstraction returns in the Stampriet area are up to 80% bias.•Prosopis trees seem to be a big problem on most farms as they can take up to 70 liters of water per hour

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FROM A TECHNICIAN REPORT:

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LEGISLATION: RESEARCH

In 2004 an Act was promulgated that regulates a.o. research activities.

Regulations were enacted in 2011.According to the Act it is unlawful to do any research in Namibia unless

an application has been made to the NATIONAL COMMISSION ONRESEARCH, SCIENCE AND

TECHNOLOGYand the Commission has given their

approval.

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SOCIO-ECONOMIC ASPECTS

Carlsson et al., 2009: Review of the Molopo-Nossob Basin:

Population Labour force Household income Settlement programs Gross Domestic

Products Mining, Industry,

Tourism, Trade, Infrastructure, Inflation and Finances

Economic activity centres Aids Effects on humans from TDS

JICA, 2002: Study of the groundwater potential and management plan in the southeast Kalahari (Stampriet) Artesian Basin in Namibia:

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IMPACTS ON AQUIFER SYSTEM

1. Impacts on Recharge1. Dams2. Bush encroachment

2. Impacts on Water Quality1. Nitrate pollution2. Irrigation return flow

3. Impact of Abstraction

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IMPACTS ON RECHARGE

1. DAMS

The alluvial aquifer(s) along the Nossob Rivers are mainly affected. 1. Farm Dams in the upper reaches of the

Black Nossob River reduce the run-off.2. The Daan Viljoen Dam together with the

Tilda Viljoen Dam at Gobabis have the same effect

3. The Otjivero Dam in the White Nossob River near Omitara also reduces recharge of the alluvial aquifer.

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IMPACTS ON RECHARGE

2. Bush encroachment

Prosopis trees constitute a tremendous

threat

2. BUSH ENCROACHMENT

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IMPACTS ON WATER QUALITY1. Nitrate pollution

During data processing of the CSIR water quality dataGideon Tredoux and Jürgen Kirchner noticed that statistically water samples from the oldest boreholes showed higher nitrate concentration than those from younger boreholes.As farmers generally have their kraals and stock watering troughs next to the boreholes we concluded that the higher nitrate could be ascribed to wetted dung by overflowing reservoir and troughs.2. Irrigation return flowArtificial fertiliser might also be a cause for concern.

Water quality changes over two to three decades

Borehole No. WW Farm °S °E

Aquifer Dates EC mS/m

% change

874 R202 24.36940

18.68330 A

13-05-1965 72

+23.625-03-2000 89

1100 R118 24.57100

18.33810 A

09-06-1965 73

+27.410-10-2000 93

2302 R346 24.97435

19.10679 K

18-03-1968 205

+25.915-11-2000 258

5943 R128 24.14992

18.47790 A

21-07-1969 55

+10.904-11-2000 61

9105 R499 25.01740

19.93333 A

03-04-1967 202

+18.306-11-2000 239

9658 L618 23.56300

18.96990 R

04-09-1968 69

+10.121-03-2000 76

11314 R533 24.6717

119.5646

7 A03-08-

1971 155+0.606-11-

2000 156

12914 L957 23.3282

019.9186

0 N16-10-

1971 130+34.618-03-

2000 175

23169 L330 23.3793

019.5872

0 K17-08-

1978 109+37.617-03-

2000 150

23334 L330 23.1455

019.5569

0 R29-08-

1978 54+18.517-03-

2000 64

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IMPACT OF ABSTRACTION

When drilled after World War II the lowermost free-flowing boreholes along the Auob River were on the farms Wildmoor and Kalverhok upstream of Gochas.These boreholes have stopped flowing a long time ago.In the areas upstream water levels have, however always recovered again after extraordinary rainfall events.In the long run abstraction (plus leakage) and recharge appear to be in equilibrium.

.

185 Entries under STAMPRIET ARTESIAN BASIN with 62 attached documents

THE GRIM META-DATABASE CONTAINS

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AgipCarbone (1984). Report on the 1984 exploration campaign in the Aranos area.Alker, M. (2008). The Stampriet Artesian Aquifer Basin - A case study for the research project ”Transboundary groundwater management in Africa”. Conceptualizing cooperation on

Africa's transboundary groundwater resources. W. Scheumann and E. Herrfahrdt-Pähle. Bonn, German Development Institute: 37.Begujam, R. and L. Thamae (2008). ORASECOM - Groundwater review of the Molopo-Nossob Basin for rural communities including assessment of national database at the sub-basin

level for possible future integration, GCS in association with CCL: 42 pp.Beukes, H. (2007). Stampriet Monitoring Report. Windhoek, DWA/Geohydrology: 10 pp.Beukes, H., M. Katjimune, et al. (2005). Stampriet Artesian Aquifer - Drilling and test pumping of additional monitoring boreholes, Geohydrology/DWA.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of pressure probe test, Borehole J3-N (WW39844), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 7 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of pressure probe test, Borehole J5-N (WW39848), BIWAC & Metzger or JICA Study Team: 7 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of pumping test data, Borehole J1-A (WW39839), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 8 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of pumping test data, Borehole J2-A (WW39840), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 9 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of pumping test data, Borehole J2-N (WW39841), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 9 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of pumping test data, Borehole J3-A (WW39843), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 8 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of pumping test data, Borehole J3-K (WW39842), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 8 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of pumping test data, Borehole J4-A (WW39846), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 8 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of pumping test data, Borehole J4-K (WW39845), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 3 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of pumping test data, Borehole J4-N (WW39847), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 9 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of pumping test data, Borehole J5-N (WW39848), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 6 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of pumping test data, Borehole J6-A (WW39850), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 8 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of pumping test data, Borehole J6-K (WW39849), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 8 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of pumping test data, Borehole J7-K (WW39852), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 10 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of pumping test data, Borehole J7-N (WW39853), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 6 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of pumping test data, Borehole J8-K (WW39854), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 7 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of pumping test data, Borehole J9-A (WW39857), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 9 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of slug test data, Borehole J4-K (WW39845), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 3 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of slug test data, Borehole J6-N (WW39851), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 3 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of slug test data, Borehole J7-N (WW39853), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 4 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of slug test data, Borehole J8-A (WW39855), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 4 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of slug test data, Borehole J8-K (WW39854), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 4 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of slug test data, Borehole J8-N (WW39856), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 4 pp.BIWAC (2000). Evaluation of step drawdown test data, Borehole J1-A (WW39839), BIWAC & Metzger for JICA Study Team: 1 tabel.Bockmühl, F. (2002). Full hole cementing during borehole construction by hydraulic pressure grouting in the Stampriet Artesian Basin.Carlsson, L., C. Massalila-Dodo, et al. (2009). Groundwater Review of the Molopo-Nossob Basin for Rural Communities Including Assessment of National Databases at the Sub-Basin

Level for Possible Future Integration. Gaborone, Geotechnical Consulting Services,Continental Consultants (PTY) LTD,: 220 pp.Christelis, G. (1979). Potential report on the groundwater conditions at Aranos.Conradie, P. (1991). Bedryfverslag ter evaluering van Aranos SWS.Corner, B. (2000). Interpretation of regional aeromagnetic data covering the Stampriet Artesian Aquifer study area, in central eastern Namibia, Corner Geophysics: 10 pp.Department of Water Affairs (1979). Addendum Verslag tot Aranos Beplanningsverslag Nr 3110/16, Julie 1978: 7 pp.Department of Water Affairs (2002). Full hole cementing during borehole construction by hydraulic pressure grouting in the Stampriet artesian basin.Department of Water Affairs, D. S. (1974). Verslag betreffende die artesiese boorgat op ou Stampriet, Drilling Section/DWA.Djama, M. (1996). Aranos State Water Scheme Memorandum on Drilling and Pumptest. Windhoek, DWA Geohydrology: 15 pp.Djama, M. (1996). Aranos State Water Scheme. Memorandum on drilling and test pumping. Windhoek, Geohydrology: 15 pp. + App.Djama, M. (1996). Aranos WSS: Drilling and test pumping of boreholes, DWA/Geohydrology.DWA (2003). Country situation report Namibia. Windhoek, DWA: 8 pp.Egerer, E. (1998). Sustainable development of groundwater resources in Southern and Eastern Africa regional technical co-operation project RAF 8/029.Euro Namibian investment Co. Ltd. (1987). Aranos Coal Deposit Locality Plan. Euro Namibian investment Co. Ltd.

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Frommurze, H. F. (1931). "Flowing boreholes in the Rehoboth, Gibeon and Gobabis Districts, South West Africa." Trans. geol. Soc. S. Afr. 34: 129-149.Geotechnical Consulting Services (Pty) Ltd. and C. C. P. Ltd. (2009). Groundwater review of the Molopo-Nossob Basin for rural communities including assessment of National Database

at the sub-basin level for possible future integration. Final Report - Short version.Gerber, A. (1968). 'n Waterkaart van die ondergrondse waterbronne in Siudwes-Afrika, met spesifieke verwysing na die benuttingswaarde van die Water.'n Intensiewe opname van waterbronne in die basaltgebiet om Kalkrand. Windhoek, NIWR/CSIR.Gerber, A. (1969). 'n Waterkaart van die ondergrondse waterbronne in Siudwes-Afrika, met spesifieke verwysing na die benuttingswaarde van die Water.'n Intensiewe opname van waterbronne in die basaltgebiet om Kalkrand. Windhoek, NIWR/CSIR.Geyh, M. A. (1994). German-Namibian groundwater exploration project: Isotope hydrological study. Hannover, BGR: 66 pp.Geyh, M. A., B. T. Verhagen, et al. (2009). Confinement of the Stampriet Karoo Aquifer: New isotopic evidence. Pushing the limits. Somerset West, South Africa, Geological Society of

South Africa/Groundwater Division Central Branch: 9 pp.Groom, B., J. Macgregor, et al. (2002). Sustainable management of the South East Kalahari Aquifer system, Namibia. Background discussion, management options and policy

recommendations.Harris, M. (2005). Comments on Permit Application by Aranos Village Council.Heath, D. C. (1972). Geologie van die Sisteem Karoo in die gebied Mariental - Asab, SWA.Heaton, T. H. E., A. S. Talma, et al. (1980). The age and composition of groundwater in SWA, CSIR/NPRL: 19 pp. + tables 17 graphs.Heaton, T. H. E., A. S. Talma, et al. (1981). Progress Report to the Steering Committee for Water Research, CSIR.Hegenberger, W. (1985). "Some aspects of Nama and Karoo sedimentation from a borehole south-east of Gochas." Communs. geol. Surv. S.W.Afr./Namibia 1: 63-67.Hemming, N. G., M. Stute, et al. (1998). "Secular variation in the composition of groundwater: Stampriet Artesian Aquifer, Namibia." Mineralogical Magazine 62A.Huyser, D. J. (1978). 'n Intensiewe opname van waterbronne in die distrik Maltahöhe en gedeeltes van Distrikte Rehoboth en Mariental (Gibeon). Pretoria, NIWR/CSIR.Huyser, D. J. (1978). Onverwerkte data versamel tydens 'n intensiewe opname van waterbronne in die Distrik Maltahöhe en gedeeltes van die Distrikte Mariental en Rehoboth.

Windhoek, NIWR/CSIR.Huyser, D. J. (1982). Chemiese kwaliteit van die ondergrondse waters in Suidwes-Afrika/Namibië (met spesifieke verwysing na die benuttingswaarde van die water). Pretoria, Nasionale

Instituut vir Waternavorsing, Wetenskaplike en Nywerheidsnavorsingsraad, Pretoria: 147 pp.Huyser, D. J. (1982). Water quality map 1 : 1 000 000 (TDS, SO4, F, NO3). Pretoria, National Institute for Water Research/Council for Scientific and Industrial Research.Hydrology Division, D. o. W. A. (1974). Vorderingsverslag oor afdigtingstegnieke en navorsing in die Stampriet Artesiese Gebied.Ihemba, S. (2008). Status of groundwater levels in Namibia. Windhoek, DWA/Geohydrology: 3 pp.JICA (1999). The study on the groundwater potential evaluation and management plan in the Southeast Kalahari (Stampriet Artesian Basin in the Republic of Namibia Progress report

(l) Data Book of Existing borehole Survey.JICA (2001). The study on the groundwater potential evaluation and management plan in the Southeast Kalahari (Stampriet) Artesian Basin in the Republic of Namibia.JICA (2002). Pumping test data of JICA well: 96 pp.JICA (2002). The study on the groundwater potential evaluation and management plan in the southeast Kalahari (Stampriet) Artesian Basin in Namibia - Data book. Tokyo/Japan,

Pacific Consultants International (PCI) in association with SANYU Consultants INC, for Japan International Cooperation Agency: 151 pp.JICA (2002). The study on the groundwater potential evaluation and management plan in the southeast Kalahari (Stampriet) Artesian Basin in Namibia - Executive Summary.

Tokyo/Japan, Pacific Consultants International (PCI) in association with SANYU Consultants INC, for Japan International Cooperation Agency.JICA (2002). The study on the groundwater potential evaluation and management plan in the southeast Kalahari (Stampriet) Artesian Basin in Namibia - Main report. Tokyo/Japan,

Pacific Consultants International (PCI) in association with SANYU Consultants INC, for Japan International Cooperation Agency.JICA (2002). The study on the groundwater potential evaluation and management plan in the southeast Kalahari (Stampriet) Artesian Basin in Namibia - Supporting report.

Tokyo/Japan, Pacific Consultants International (PCI) in association with SANYU Consultants INC, for Japan International Cooperation Agency.JICA (2002). The Study on The Groundwater Potential Evaluation and Management Plan in The Southeast Kalahari (Stampriet) Artesian Basin in The Republic of Namibia, JICA.JICA (2002). The study on the groundwater potential evaluation and management plan in the Southeast Kalahari (Stampriet) Artesian Basin in the Republic of Namibia (Draft final

report: Executive summary, Main report, Supporting report, Data book).JICA (2002). The study on the groundwater potential evaluation and management plan in the Southeast Kalahari (Stampriet) Artesian Basin in the Republic of Namibia (Final report:

data book).JICA (2002). The study on the groundwater potential evaluation and management plan in the Southeast Kalahari (Stampriet) Artesian Basin in the Republic of Namibia (Final report:

Executive summary).JICA (2002). The study on the groundwater potential evaluation and management plan in the Southeast Kalahari (Stampriet) Artesian Basin in the Republic of Namibia (Final report:

Main report).JICA (2002). The study on the groundwater potential evaluation and management plan in the Southeast Kalahari (Stampriet) Artesian Basin in the Republic of Namibia (Final report:

Supporting report).

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Kavikairiua, L. (2003). Aranos WSS: Camera inspection.Kent, L. E. (1949). "The thermal waters of the Union of South Africa and South West Africa." Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Afr. 52: 231-264.Kingsley, C. S. (1985). Sedimentological analysis of the Ecca Sequence in the Kalahari Basin, South West Africa/Namibia, CDM Mineral Surveys: 39 pp.Kirchner, J. (1979). Potential report on the groundwater conditions at Aranos. Windhoek, DWA/Geohydrology: 4 pp.Kirchner, J. (2001). The Study of the groundwater potential and management plan in the Southeastern Kalahari (Stampriet) Artesian Basin - Hydrocensus Report. Windhoek, Groundwater

Investigation for PCI/JICA: 29 pp.Kirchner, J. (2008). Investigations in the Stampriet Artesian Aquifer - A follow-up study to determine effect of leakage; recharge in the eastern part of the basin; regional groundwater potential;

and transfer existing data to GIS system. Windhoek, DWA/Geohydrology: 14 pp.Kirchner, J. (undated). AGE, DWA/Geohydrology.Kirchner, J. and G. Tredoux (1975). The chemical composition of the groundwater with respect to geological formations. The Stampriet Artesian Basin with special reference to the Salt Block.Kirchner, J. and G. Tredoux (1975). The Stampriet Artesian Basin, with special reference to the salt-block: The chemical composition of the groundwater with respect to geological formations.

SARCCUS Meeting, Bulawayo, Geological Survey.Kirchner, J., G. Tredoux, et al. (2002). Applying environmental isotopes to a hydrogeological model of the Stampriet Artesian Basin Project RAF 8/029: 62 pp.Kirchner, J., G. Tredoux, et al. (2002). International Atomic Energy Agency RAF 8/029. Sustainable development of groundwater resources in the Africa.Koegelenberg, C. F. N. and B. Sterianos (1993). Planning Memorandum on the upgrading of the Aranos State Water Scheme, DWA/Planning.Kruger, J. (1969). Verkenningsverslag watervoorsiening Gochas. Windhoek, DWA: 22 pp.Lindgren, A. (1999). The value of water - A study of the Stampriet Aquifer in Namibia, Umeå University.Low, D. (2000). An overview of the drilling programme in the Blumfelde area of the Southeast Kalahari (sub) - Artesian Basin to collect groundwater samples for isotope analysis applying the

EDL- Technology.Martin, H. The Artesian area in SWA, Geological Survey.Martin, H. The Artesian Basin in S.W.A.: Maps Martin, H. Geologiese seksies sub-artesiese kom Stampriet.Martin, H. Seksies deur subartesiese kom, Stampriet.Menge, L. (2011). Hydrocensus of irrigation farms in the Windhoek District_Water controlled area, DWA/Geohydrology: 11 pp.Menge, L. and H. Coetzee (2011). Hydrocensus of irrigation farms in the Hardap District Water controlled area, DWA/Geohydrology: 11 pp.Miller, R. M. (1999). The Geology of the Stampriet Artesian Basin: 23 pp.Miller, R. M. (2005). Compilation of maps of the Stampriet Artesian Basin.Miller, R. M. (2006). New understanding of the post-Dwyka geology of the Aranos (Stampriet) Artesian Basin with particular reference to the sandstone aquifers. HAN Conference 2006: Recent

groundwater research in Southern Africa. Windhoek, Hydrogeological Association of Namibia: 4 pp.Miller, R. M., Ed. (2008). The Geology of Namibia. Windhoek, Geological Survey of Namibia.Miller, R. M. (undated). Compilation of geological maps of the post-Dwyka geology of the Stampriet Artesian Basin.Morosini, M. (1996). Chemical-isotopic character, origin and evolution of groundwater in the Western Ghanzi District, Botswana. Lobatse, Department of Geological Survey.Muir, C. (2010). Development of an integrated water resources management plan for Namibia - Consolidation of National Water Development Strategy and Action Plan. Thematic report 2: The

assessment of resources potential and development needs. Windhoek, IWRM Plan Joint Venture Namibia: 175 pp.Mulele, O. (2011). Groundwater Monitoring 1st Quarter Report, DWA/Geohydrology: 16 pp.Muller, S. (1992). Aranos State Water Scheme Memorandum on drilling and test pumping. Windhoek, DWA/Geogydrology: 13 pp.Müller, S. (1992). Aranos State Water Scheme. Memorandum on drilling and test pumping. Windhoek, DWA/Geohydrology: 13 pp.Namwater (1997). Production - Aranos, DWA.Namwater (2006). Aranos WSS: Rehabilitation Karas area-Koichab Pan WSS and Aranos WSS: WSS.Namwater (2008, 2010). Aranos WSS: Photos.Namwater (2010). Aranos WSS: Data.Namwater (2010). Aranos WSS: Production.Namwater (2010). Aranos WSS: Test pumping.Nawrowski, J. Locality of the Salt Block, deeper groundwater sources underlying the salt block of the basin, Geohydrology: 9 pp.Nawrowski, J. (1986). Progress report No.1 on the Stampriet Artesian Basin (Results of the bh survey within the Stampriet-Gochas area). Windhoek, DWA/Geohydrology Division: 18 pp.Nawrowski, J. (1986). Progress Report No. 1 on the Stampriet Artesian Basin: Results of the borehole survey within the Stampriet-Gochas Area. Windhoek, DWA/Geohydrology: 18 pp.Nawrowski, J. (1987). Progress Report 2 on the SAB - Results of the Borehole Survey within the Aranos-Leonardville Area, DWA/Geohydrology: 21 pp.Nawrowski, J. (1987). Progress report No.2 on the Stampriet Artesian Basin (Result of the bh survey within the Aranos-Leonardville area). Windhoek, DWA: Geohydrology Division: 21 pp.Nawrowski, J. (1987). Progress Report No. 2 on the Stampriet Artesian Basin: Results of the Borehole Survey within the Aranos-Leonardville Area, DWA.

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Nawrowski, J. (1987). Some notes on the geohydrology and hydrochemistry of the Salt Block within the Stampriet Artesian Basin. Windhoek, DWA - Geohydrology: 9 pp.Nawrowski, J. (1989). Progress report No. 3 on the Stampriet Artesian Basin (Result of the bh survey in Area 3, the north-western intake area). Windhoek, DWA/Geohydrology Division: 17 pp.Nawrowski, J. (1989). Progress Report No. 3 on the Stampriet Artesian Basin: Results of the borehole survey in Area 3, The North-Western Intake Area, DWA: 17 pp.Ninham Shand (1971). Water resources investigation and planning for part of the Central Area of South West Africa.Report on ground water investigation - Drilling carried out from January 1970 to January 1971. Windhoek, Ninham Shand: 27 pp. + 27 Appendices.NN Appendix to HAR 63 - Unpubl. report.NN Groundwater investigation Auob artesian basin.NN Progress report on the Stampriet Artesian Basin.NN Rainfall figures Stampriet area-Unpubl. report.NN Seasonal rainfall summary 1937 - 1990.NN (1977). File: Olifantswater: Completion reports; Pumptest and Letters.NN (1978). File: Tugela: Completion reports; Pumptest and Letters.NN (1978). Geologiese opname - Artesiese gebied Stampriet (Lidfontein omgewing).NN (1978). SWA Coal Project (Aranos Basin).NN (1979). Galton: Completion reports; Pumptest and Letters.NN (1984). Minutes of a meeting to discuss investigations to determine groundwater potential.NN (1984). Minutes of an informal meeting: Stampriet artesian basin investigation.NN (1987). Vergadering onder voorsitterskap van die Ministerie van Landbou, Waterwese en Seevissery met grondeienaars wat binne die geproklameerde Stampriet Gochas, Leonardville, Aranos ondergrondse waterbeheergebied val.NN (1988). Databank Area 3: Reports and letters on Stampriet Artesian Area.NN (1997). Stampriet Water Committee Meeting on 14 March 1997.Planning Division (1978). Aranos Staatswaterskema - Goedkeuring van Fondse vir voorgestelde aanvullende werke, DWA Planning Division.Range, P. (1915). Ergebnisse von Bohrungen in Deutsch-Südwest-Afrika. Berlin.Range, P. (1943). "Zur Wasserwirtschaft in Deutsch-Südwestafrika." Beitr. KolonForsch. 5: 133-147.Schalk, K. (1961). "Water balance of the Uhlenhorst cloudburst in South West Africa." CCTA Publ., Nairobi 66: 443-449.Sobott, A. P. (1974). Proposal and estimates for drilling, constructing and pressure grouting production and observation bores in the Southern region of South West Africa, Australian Wellfield Service: 20 pp.Stone, A. E. C. and W. M. Edmunds (2012). "Sand, salt and water in the Stampriet Basin, Namibia: Calculating unsaturated zone (Kalahari dune field) recharge using the chloride mass balance approach." Water SA 38(3): 12 pp.Stute, M. and A. S. Talma (1997). Glacial temperatures and moisture transport regimes reconstructed from noble gases and d18O. Stampriet Aquifer, Namibia. International Symposium on Isotope Techniques of Past and Current Environmental Changes in the Hydrosphere and Atmosphere, Vienna, IAEA.Swartz, B. (2010). Aranos WSS: Replacement drilling of production borehole Aranos WSS: WSS, Karas area.Symons, G. and R. M. Miller (2000). Geology and resistivity characteristics of the Stampriet Artesian Basin. Groundwater: Past Achievements and Future Challenges. S. e. al. Cape Town, Balkema: 337-342 pp.Symons, G., R. M. Miller, et al. (2000). Geology and resistivity characteristics of the Stampriet Artesian Basin Past Achievements and Future Challenges. O. e. a. Sililo. Cape Town, A.A. Balkema: 337-342.Tredoux, G. (1971). Intensiewe opname van waterbronne in die in die Soutblok gebied. Windhoek, NIWR/CSIR.Tredoux, G. (1971). 'n Waterkaart van die ondergrondse waters in Suidwes -Afrika met spesifieke verwysing na die benuttingswaarde van doe water. intensiewe opname van die waterbronne in die Soutblok projekverslag No. 7. Windhoek, NIWR/CSIR.Tredoux, G. (1971). 'n Waterkaart van die ondergrondse waters in SWA met spesifieke verwysings na die benuttingswaarde van die water. Onverwerkte data ingesamel gedurende 'n opname in die Soutblok. Windhoek, NIWR/CSIR.Tredoux, G. (1971). 'n Waterkwaliteitskaart van die Ondergrondse Waters in Suidwes-Afrika met spesifieke verwysing na die Benuttingswaarde van die Water: Data versamel tydens 'n Intensiewe Opname van Waterbronne in die Soutblok: Projekverslag Nr. 7, CSIR.Tredoux, G. (1972). 'n Waterkwaliteitskaart van die ondergrondse waters in Suidwes-Africa met spesifieke verwysing na die benuttingswaarde van die water. Data versamel tydens 'n intensiewe opname van waterbronne in die Soutblok. Windhoek, NIWR/CSIR.Tredoux, G. (1972). 'n Waterkwaliteitskaart van die Ondergrondse Waters in Suidwes-Afrika met spesifieke verwysing na die Benuttingswaarde van die Water: Data versamel tydens 'n Intensiewe Opname van Waterbronne in die Soutblok: Bylaag tot Projekverslag Nr. 7, CSIR.Tredoux, G. (1977). 'n Intensive opname van waterbronne in die Artesiese Gebied Stampriet. Pretoria, NIWR/CSIR.

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Tredoux, G. (1977). R: Distrik Mariental (Gibeon):Onverwerkte data, NIWR/CSIR.Tredoux, G. (1981). Die korrelasie tussen waterkwaliteit en geologiese formasie in SWA: 'n Geohidrochemiese ondersoek van die Artesian Kom Stampriet]. Bloemfontein, UOVS: 297 pp.Tredoux, G. (1999). The study of the groundwater potential evaluation and management plan in the Southeast Kalahari (Stampriet) Artesian Basin in the Republic of Namibia Task 11: Initial Environmental Examination.Tredoux, G. (2000). International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) Project: RAF 8/029 Sustainable development of groundwater resources Task 13: Data evaluation and training report on Expert Mission to Namibia: 25 September to 6 October 2000.Tredoux, G. (2000). Report on Expert Mission to Namibia: 25 September to 6 October 2000.Tredoux, G. and J. Kirchner (1979). Die geohidrologie van die Artesiese Kom Stampriet met inagneming van die chemie en die isotopesamestelling van die waters. Pretoria, CSIR/NPRL.Tredoux, G. and J. Kirchner (1981). "The evolution of the composition of artesian water in the Auob sandstone." Trans. Geol. Soc. S. Afr. 84: 169-175.Tredoux, G., J. Kirchner, et al. (2009). Defining the Karoo aquifers shared by Botswana and Namibia. Groundwater 2009 Conference. Sommerset West/Cape Town.Tredoux, G., J. C. Vogel, et al. (1978). Die Geohidrologie van Die Artesiese Kom Stampriet met inagneming van die Chemie en die Isotoopsamestelling van die waters., CSIR.Tredoux, G., J. C. Vogel, et al. (1978). Die geohidrologie van die Artesiese Kom Stampriet, met inagneming van die chemie en die isotopesamestelling van die waters. Deel III: Data, CSIR & Geol. Survey.Tredoux, G., J. C. Vogel, et al. (1979). Die geohidrologie van die Artesiese Kom Stampriet. PART II: Maps, CSIR & Geol. Survey.van Vuuren, O. (1997). Test pumping at Westfalen. (Ref.03/004/ovv), Consulting Geohydrologist.van Vuuren, O. (2005, 2006, 2007). Aranos WSS: Annual Scheme Assessment.van Wyk, W. L. and P. F. Hamman (1969). Ondergrondse water in Suidwes-Afrika. Simposium oor Grondwater in Suidelike Afrika. Pretoria: 13 pp.van Zyl, G. (1981). Watervoorsiening aan Aminuisdorp. Windhoek, DWA/Ploanning: 16 pp.Verhagen, B. T. and M. J. Butler (2009). Groundwater input to a rare flood event in an arid zone ephemeral river identified with isotopes and chemistry. Pushing the limits. Somerset West, South Africa, Geological Society of South Africa/Groundwater Division Central Branch: 6 pp.Vogel, J. Isotope data, CSIR/NPRL.Vogel, J. and E. Visser (1978). Die ouderdom en isotoopsamestelling van grondwater in S.W.A. Pretoria, CSIR/NPRL: 4 pp.Vogel, J. C. (1975). Toepassing van Natuurisotope op Grondwaterprobleme in S.W.A., CSIR.Vogel, J. C. (1979). Isotoopsamestelling van die Grondwater in die Artesiese Kom Stampriet, CSIR.Vogel, J. C., A. S. Talma, et al. (1982). The Age and isotopic composition of groundwater in the Stampriet Artesian Basin S.W.A. Pretoria, CSIR/NPRL: 49 pp.Vogel, J. C., A. S. Talma, et al. (1982). The age and isotopic composition of groundwater in the Stampriet Artesian Basin, SWA, CSIR/NPRL: 49 pp. + tables 47 graphs.Vogel, J. C., A. S. Talma, et al. (1982). The age and isotopic composition of the groundwater in the Stampriet Artesian Basin, SWA. (Final report to the Steering Committee for Water Research). Pretoria, NPRL/CSIR.Vogel, J. C. and H. van Urk (1977). Isotoopsamestelling van die grondwater in die Artesiese Kom Stampriet.Vogel, J. C. and H. van Urk (1979). Isotoopsamestelling van die grondwater in die Artesiese Kom Stampriet - Deel I B, CSIR.Wilson, E. J. (1964). Artnell Exploration Company: Vreda 281 no.1 (stratigraphic test).

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1624 - Kok, T. S. (1964). The occurrence and location of ground water in South West Africa. Area: Namibia; Caprivi; Erongo; Hardap; Karas; Khomas; Kunene; Ohangwena; Okavango; Omaheke; Omusati; Oshana; Oshikoto; Otjozondjupa; Abenab; Ai-Ais; Aranos; Ariamsvlei; Aroab; Auob; Berseba; Bethanien; Bondels; Damaraland; Dreikuk; Eiseb; Epukiro; Etosha; Fish River; Fransfontein; Gibeon; Gobabis; Gross Barmen; Guinas; Helmeringhausen; Hoachanas; Hoanib; Hoarusib; Huab; Kalahari; Kalkfeld; Kalkrand; Kamanjab; Kanovley; Kaokoveld; Karasburg; Karibib; Karst; Keetmanshoop; Khan; Koichab; Kombat; Kuibis; Leonardville; Lüderitz; Maltahöhe; Maroelaboom; Namaland; Namib; Namutoni; Nauchas; Naukluft; Nossob; Ohopoho; Okahandja; Okaukuejo; Omaruru; Omatako; Ondangwa; Opuwo; Orange River; Osona; Otavi; Otjikoto; Otjituuo; Otjiwarongo; Outjo; Rehoboth; Rietfontein; Rössing; Rundu; Sesfontein; Skeleton Coast; Sossusvlei; Stampriet; Swakop; Swakopmund; Tses; Tsondabvlei; Tsumeb; Tsumis Park; Ugab; Uhlenhorst; Unjab; Usakos; Warmbad; Waterberg; Windhoek; Witpütz; Witvley; Stampriet Artesian Basin (SAB). Document location: Attached. (Kirchner) [Büroschrank]

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MODEL BOUNDARIES& FLUXES

ABSTRACTION ESTIMATES

Model incorporates abstraction from irrigation farmers, NamWater production wells as well as abstraction for domestic and stock watering purposes based on the JICA final report and recent (end of 2004) permit allocations (DWA).

Abstraction: Irrigation/NamWater 9.9 Mm3/a (DWA Records)

Localised (Point) Abstraction

Domestic/Stockwatering 7.7 Mm3/a (0.12 mm/a) (JICA Study)

Evenly Distributed Abstraction

CALIBRATION POINTS Area: 70,000 km2

FARM No. GEOLOGY STARTBoomplaas M1 Auob 01.07.1970Gomchanas M2 Auob 17.01.1974Olifantswater West M6 Auob 11.07.1977Spes Bona S1 Auob 28.01.1978Olifantswater West M3 U Rietm 09.07.1985Olifantswater West M4 Kalahari 09.07.1985Olifantswater West M5 Auob 09.07.1985Olifantswater West M7 K&R&A 09.07.1985Olifantswater West M8 K&R&A 09.07.1985Tugela S2 K&A&N 10.07.1985Tugela S3 K&A&N 10.07.1985Tugela S4 K&A 10.07.1985Tugela S7 Kalahari 10.07.1985

The model accurately simulates the general groundwater flow pattern

within the SAB. provide a reasonable (transient) calibration of the long-

term changes in groundwater levels since 1970.

The model does not achieve accuracy of <10m in the predicted groundwater

levels within large portions of the basin. accurately predict the occurrence of artesian conditions. provide a reliable prediction of short-term (month to

month) variations in the groundwater levels. incorporate the Nossob Aquifer & the Neu Loore Fm. distinguish between the 5 individual units within the Auob

Fm. consider spatial variability in hydraulic properties within

the Kalahari sediments.

DISCUSSION (1)

DISCUSSION (2)

Results indicate that most years contribute little or nothing to

recharge whereas a few exceptional rainfall years may replenish

the systems for years to come.

During the last 35 years substantial recharge occurred only three

times, namely during the rainy season of the years 1974, 1976

and 2000.

Need to revise conceptual model based on new findings

Need to recalibrate numerical model based on new calibration

data

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 19990

50000

100000

150000

200000

250000

300000

0

100000

200000

300000

400000

500000

600000

700000

NamWater Scheme Production

AranosLeonardvilleStamprietGochasKoesKriesAminiusOn-derom-bapaTotal

Year

Pro

du

ctio

n in

each

are

a(m

3)

Tota

l p

rod

uct

ion

(m3

)

01

/01

/19

86

07

/01

/19

86

01

/01

/19

87

07

/01

/19

87

01

/01

/19

88

06

/01

/19

88

12

/01

/19

88

06

/01

/19

89

12

/01

/19

89

06

/01

/19

90

11

/01

/19

90

05

/01

/19

91

11

/01

/19

91

05

/01

/19

92

11

/01

/19

92

05

/01

/19

93

11

/01

/19

93

05

/01

/19

94

11

/01

/19

94

05

/01

/19

95

11

/01

/19

95

04

/01

/19

96

01

/01

/19

97

07

/01

/19

97

01

/01

/19

98

07

/01

/19

98

01

/01

/19

99

07

/01

/19

99

01

/01

/20

00

07

/01

/20

00

01

/01

/20

01

07

/01

/20

01

01

/01

/20

02

07

/01

/20

02

01

/01

/20

03

07

/01

/20

03

01

/01

/20

04

07

/01

/20

04

01

/01

/20

05

07

/01

/20

05

01

/01

/20

06

07

/01

/20

06

01

/01

/20

07

07

/01

/20

07

01

/01

/20

08

07

/01

/20

08

01

/01

/20

09

0

500

1000

1500

2000

2500

3000

3500

40000

20

40

60

80

100

120

140

160

180

LEONARDVILLEWW7309

(Depth 188.06 m)

PRODUCTION RECOMMENDED PROD PWL RWL PID YIELD

PR

OD

UC

TIO

N I

N M

3/M

ON

TH

DATE

WA

TE

R L

EV

EL

BE

LO

W S

UR

FA

CE

(m

)

y = 5.45x - 12.02

-70.0

-60.0

-50.0

-40.0

-30.0

-20.0

-10.0

0.0

-10.0 -8.0 -6.0 -4.0 -2.0 0.0O xygen-18, per m il

Deu

teri

um

,pe

rm

il

Kalahari

Basalt

Rietm ond

y = 5.45x - 12.02

-70.0

-60.0

-50.0

-40.0

-30.0

-20.0

-10.0

0.0

-10.0 -8.0 -6.0 -4.0 -2.0 0.0O xygen-18, per m il

Deu

teri

um

,pe

rm

il

Kalahari

Basalt

Rietm ond

Auob

Nossob

MW L

Linear (Kalahari)

G lobal MeteoricWater L ine


B a sa lt W



G re y sh a le

Ye l lo w sh a le


G re y sh a le
















T i llit e





A U O B (P erm ian)




P R E -K A R O O

(C am bria n)

KAROO


DIS

CU

SS

ION

The Kalahari is compartmentalised.

The concept of a continuous

uniform Stampriet aquifer is

a simplification. Even a uniform trippel-

aquifer system isn’t

applicable

The thickness of the underlying up to 8 aquifers varies between zero and a maximum of ~ 30 m.

Rainfall/Recha

rge

works for vertically recharged

aquifers only. Mean Rainfall in the

NE is about 400

mm/a and in the SW

about 200 mm/a.

DIS

CU

SS

ION

A further problem is that the artesian aquifers in the Transnossob have not been recharged since the last Pluvial.

Water-level contours there reflect rather the transmissivity (lower at higher elevations) and not recent recharge areas.

Science

Day1 4 kirchner_stampriet