Coherence and cohesion

What Makes a Good Paragraph?

Cohesion and CoherenceDr. Phil. Muhammad Almaliki

Problems in paragraph writing

1. Lack of connections of ideas – jumping

from one topic to another

2. Lack of linking words or transitions

3. Lack of synonyms

4. Misuse of pronouns

5. Misuse of articles

Effective Paragraph

1. Topic sentence: Main

Idea

2. Unity: single focus

3. Coherence: systematic

connection

4. Adequate

development: sufficient

examples, details

Topic Sentence

Contains the main idea

Has main idea and

controlling idea

Is the focus of the

paragraph

Usually in the beginning

of the paragraph (the

first or second

sentence)

Coherence

All sentences in the paragraph should have a single focus

◦ The topic sentence guides the development of sentences in the paragraph

◦ The sentences in the paragraph should be relevant to and support the topic sentence.

Cohesion

In an effective paragraph, the sentences are well connected with one another.

◦ Parallel constructions

◦ Pronouns

◦ Synonyms

◦ Repetition of key words

◦ Transitional words

◦ Systematic sentence organization

Adequate Development

An effective paragraph is sufficiently developed/explained using:◦ Examples and illustrations

◦ Data (facts, statistics, evidence, details, and others)

◦ Definition terms in the paragraph

◦ Comparison and contrast

◦ Causes and reasons

◦ Effects and consequences

◦ Descriptions or details

◦ Chronology of an event (time segments)

◦ Steps

◦ Logical divisions

Example:

1My hometown is famous for several amazing natural features. 2First,

it is noted for the Wheaton River, which is very wide and beautiful. 3On either side of this river, which is 175 feet wide, are many

shady willow trees which have long branches that can move gracefully

in the wind. 4In autumn the leaves of these trees fall and cover the

riverbanks like golden snow. 5Second, on the other side of the town

is Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is very steep. 6Even

though it is steep, climbing this hill is not dangerous, because there

are some firm rocks along the sides that can be used as stairs. 7There

are no trees around this hill, so it stands clearly against the sky and

can be seen from many miles away. 8If you visit Wheaton Hill you

should try the nice restaurant at Wheaton Hill hotel. 9The third

amazing feature is the Big Old Tree. 10This tree stands two

hundred feet tall and is probably about six hundred years

old. 11These three landmarks are truly amazing and make my

hometown a famous place.

Paragraph Analysis

The topic sentence is: Sentence 1

Irrelevant sentence: Sentence 8

The paragraph also shows coherence by the use of

◦ Parallel constructions: Present tense

◦ Pronouns: this, these

◦ Synonyms: natural features = landmarks

◦ Paraphrasing of phrase/sentence: sentence 1 is paraphrased in sentence 11

◦ Repetition of key words: river, hill, rocks

◦ Transitional words: on the other side, even though, so, because

Methods of development/sentence organization used:

◦ Examples/illustrations: -

◦ Comparison and contrast: sentences 3 (comparison – on either side) and 6 (even

though)

◦ Causes and reasons: sentences 5, 6 and 7 (so, because)

◦ Descriptions or details of each landmark

◦ Logical divisions: First, Second, The third amazing feature

PARAGRAPH ANALYSIS

Practice Exercise:

Number 1

1Each of the U.S. manned space exploration projects had specific

major goals. 2For example, the Mercury project was designed to test

whether or not human beings could survive and function in outer

space. 3In addition, the Mercury project tested rockets with the new

Mercury space capsule, which could hold one person. 4As another

example, the Gemini project was intended to find out whether two

people could work in the weightless environment of space. 5One way

of doing this was by having Gemini astronauts take "spacewalks." 6That is, they floated outside their spacecraft in a spacesuit, connected

to it by a tether. 7This type of walk was developed into the famous

dancing move called ‘moonwalk’ by Michael Jackson. 8Finally, the

Apollo project, with three astronauts, had the goal of testing

spacecraft and skills so that people could actually fly to the Moon and

land on it. 9Other goals included performing scientific experiments on

the lunar surface and collecting rocks for study on Earth. 10These

three space projects have different goals with different lessons for

human beings.

(Adapted from source:

http://lrs.ed.uiuc.edu/students/fwalters/cohere.html#unity)

Number 2

1Dogs have an extreme antagonism toward cats. 2The enmity

between these two species can be traced back to the time of the

early Egyptian dynasties. 3Archaeologists in recent years have

discovered Egyptian texts in which there are detailed accounts of

dogs brutally attacking cats. 4Today this type of cruelty between

these two domestic pets can be witnessed in regions as close as

your own neighborhood. 5For example, when dogs are walked by

their masters, and they happen to catch sight of a stray cat, they will

pull with all their strength on their leash until the master is forced

to yield; the typical result is that a cat is chased up a tree. 6The two

types of animals are the most popular pets in modern homes. 7The

hatred between dogs and cats has lasted for so many centuries; it is

unlikely that this conflict will ever end.

(Adapted from Source:

http://www.wheaton.edu/learnres/writectr/Resources/coherence.ht

m)

Checking for Cohesion and Coherence:

1. The topic sentence?

2. Irrelevant sentence?

3. Does the paragraph show coherence? How

does it show coherence?

4. What method of organization does it use?

5. What do you like from the paragraph?

PARAGRAPH WRITING

Practice Exercise 2:

Paragraph Writing

Write a paragraph.

Don’t forget to make sure that your

paragraph has unity and coherence!

PARAGRAPH CHECKING

Practice Exercise 3:

Peer Evaluation

Check your friend’s paragraph if it has the following

elements:

1.The topic sentence?

2.Irrelevant sentence?

3.Does the paragraph show coherence? How does it show

coherence?

4.What method of organization does it use?

5. What do you like from the paragraph?

6.Your comments for improvement?

II. Writing Devices

Coherence

When sentences, ideas, and details fit together

clearly, readers can follow along easily, and the writing

is coherent. The ideas tie together smoothly and

clearly.

What is coherence?

Lesson 12- The Needs That Drive Us All

II. Writing Devices

Coherence

There are four basic mechanical considerations in providing

transitions between ideas:

1. using transitional expressions

2. repeating key words and phrases

3. using pronoun reference

4. using parallel form

How to be coherent?


II. Writing Devices

Coherence

1. Transitional words cue readers to the relationship between sentences.

eg. I like autumn, and yet autumn is a sad time of the year too.

More words: however, therefore, in addition, etc.

Caution: Do not include in your

text with transitional expressions

casually. They must appear

naturally, where they belong.


II. Writing Devices

Coherence

2. Repetition of words helps to focus your ideas and to

keep your reader on track.

eg. The problem with contemporary art is that it is not

easily understood by most people. Contemporary art is

deliberately abstract, and that means it leaves the viewer

wondering what she is looking at.


II. Writing Devices

3. Pronouns are used to refer back to something previously mentioned. Be sure, however, that what you are referring to is clear.

eg. When scientific experiments do not work out as expected, they are often considered failures until some other scientist tries them again.

Coherence


II. Writing Devices

4. Parallel sentence patterns can help the reader follow

along and keep ideas tied together.

eg. And so, my fellow Americans: ask not what your country

can do for you—ask what you can do for your country.

Coherence

Examples

from the text


II. Writing Devices

Unity and Coherence

(1) Freedom, another basic need, is often in conflict

with power. (2) The more power you have, even if you

use it for my benefit, the less freedom I have. (3) It

seems that there has to be a counterforce to power;

unbridled power would be destructive to the survival of

the species. (4) Therefore, almost everything said about

power could also be reworded into the vocabulary of

freedom.

topic sentence


repetition of words: power, freedom

transitional

words

II. Writing Devices

(5) For example, we may be inherently competitive,

but we want to be free to lose without losing too

much. (6) And as much as a child may love her

parents, she also wants the freedom to branch out on

her own. (7) So you can see that freedom can be in

conflict not only with power but also with belonging.

(8) For example, if you want me around too much, I

claim you stifle me, but if you aren't constantly giving

me attention, I may claim you don’t love me. (Para.

10)

Unity and Coherence

Use of pronoun reference


Analysis

II. Writing Devices

Unity and Coherence

Analysis:In this paragraph, the first sentence is the topic sentence. In the following sentences 2, 3, 4 and 7, the author gives specific information on the topic and uses examples in sentences 5, 6 and 8 to support the ideas. At the same time, the author repeats the key words “freedom” and “power” in the whole paragraph to focus the attention on the topic. He also uses transitional words and pronouns to glue the whole paragraph together. In this way, the author achieves the paragraph unity and coherence.


Science

Coherence and cohesion