INSECT POLLINATORS, THEIR MANAGEMENT AND ROLE IN CROP

PRODUCTIONCREDIT

SEMINAR

Presented by: Kumbhar Chaitanya Ramesh M/Ento/53/2011-12

DEPARTMENT OF ENTOMOLOGYRAJENDRA AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY

PUSA (SAMASTIPUR) – 848 125, BIHAR

Pollinators are essential for orchard,agricultural crop, horticultural crop and forage production. For production of seed for many root and fiber crops. Pollinators such as bees, birds and bats affect 35 percent of the world’s crop production, increasing outputs of 87 of the leading food crops worldwide.Food security, food diversity, human nutrition and food prices all rely strongly on animal pollinators.

The consequences of pollinator declines are likely to impact the production and costs of vitamin-rich crops like fruits and vegetables, leading to increasingly unbalanced diets and health problems.

Cont... Maintaining and increasing yields in horticultural crops

under agricultural development is critically important to health, nutrition, food security and better farm incomes for poor farmers.

In the past, pollination has been provided by nature at no explicit cost to human communities.

As farm fields have become larger, and the use of agricultural chemicals has increased, mounting evidence points to a potentially serious decline in populations of pollinators under agricultural development.

Myth : Plants bear flowers which become fruits

We almost always take pollination for granted

What is pollination?

• Pollination: The transfer of pollen from the male anther to the female stigma

Why is pollination important?• Sexual reproduction is important for evolution:• Sexual reproduction produces variable

offspring, creating diversity and variation among populations (shuffling of genes)

• You need variation for Natural Selection to occur

• Sexual reproduction is advantageous to an organism only if it happens with someone other than itself!

• Out breeding = good! (inbreeding = bad…)

Goyal, N. P. (1996)

“Annual monetary loss of Horticultural/Agricultural Production due to lack of proper/optimum Bee

Pollination in India is 3000 crores”

• About a century ago, it became clear in the US that production could increase considerably by careful management of pollination in many fruits, seed and nut crops.

• Size and quality of the crop improved with better pollination.

• Agriculture areas are coming under such intensive use that the natural habitats of pollinators are being destroyed → scarcity of potential pollinators → resorting of the use of bee colonies reared in boxes for managed pollination.

• In US, the value of crops resulting directly from bee pollination is estimated to be about 8 billion dollars annually

Need for Pollination

Indian Scenario

• Recourse to pollinator management aimed at crop production is practically unknown.

• Not much attention has been devoted to beekeeping as such.

• Even countries like Mexico, Argentina and China are far ahead of India in having larger number of bee colonies.

• Research activity on pollinators in India is in a state of neglect.

• The potential of beekeeping in augmenting the yield of crops in the country remains to be fully exploited.

Development of Apiculture Indian Scenario

• To revive various traditional village industries, KVIB was formed in 1954• Bee Keeping industries came on the map of village industries of India

within two decades.• In 1981, AICP on Honey Bees Research & Training was launched by

ICAR.• In 1994 – 95, MOA took initiative of launching CCS entitled

“Development of Beekeeping for improving Crop Productivity” during VIII Plan

• Beekeeping Development Board functioned to coordinate Beekeeping activities during VIIIth Plan and continued during IXth Plan. (2002)

• Formation of National Bee Board as a Registered Society in 2000.• Beekeeping activity was included under National Horticulture Mission

(NHM)May 2005. for promoting cross pollination of Horticultural crops.

NCA Recommendations In India, The National commission on Agriculture (1970 –

1976 ) was fully aware of the enormous potential of bee pollination.

NCA made very important recommendations aimed at increasing bee population and utilizing bee pollination as a powerful instrument for higher productivity.

The National commission on Agriculture has visualized the need for deploying about 150 million Bee Colonies for pollination of agricultural crops in India.

The commission recommended that every Agricultural University should develop a section on Apiculture under Entomology Division of Research, Education and Training.

Insects and Crop Pollination Entomophily is by far the most common mean of pollen transfer and it played a vital role

in the evolution of angiosperms. The mutual association of insect and flowers is believed to exist since 60 – 100 million

years ago. There are about 2,50,000 species of flowering plants globally which are pollinated by

2,00,000 species of animals. Out of 95 per cent of the flower which are cross pollinated, more than 85 per cent

depend on insects for pollination. 50 per cent of the plant species propagated by seeds are dependent on insect

pollination. 1/3rd of the food supply is either directly or indirectly dependent on insect pollinated

plants. Currently more than 65 per cent of all flowering plants are insect pollinated. Many wild plant in nature are being propagated through insect pollination which

maintains the sustainability of ecosystems, environmental quality and help in conservation of biodiversity (Free, 1993).

In India, of the 160 million hectares of the cropped area, more than 55 million is under bee dependent crops.

Bee husbandary in agricultural systems is a crucial link in food and fiber production and sustainability (Free, 1993; Delaplane and Mayer, 2000).

Feature Reason

Large, brightly coloured petals to attract insects

Often sweetly scented to attract insects

Usually contain nectar to attract insects

Moderate quantity of pollen less wastage than with wind pollination

Pollen often sticky or spiky to stick to insects

Anthers firm and inside flower to brush against insects

Stigma inside the flower so that the insect brushes against it

Stigma has sticky coating pollen sticks to it

Insect Pollinated Flowers

AGENTS OF POLLINATION

Important agents of pollen transfer:-

WIND POLLINATION

ANIMALS

BIRDS

WIND POLLINATION

Gymnosperms and some flowering plants (grasses, trees) use wind pollination.Flowers are small, grouped togetherNot a very efficient method(too chancy and wasteful)

ANIMALSMany flowering plants rely on animals

for cross-pollination:•Insects – bees, wasps, flies, butterflies,

moths•Birds – hummingbirds, honey creepers•Mammals – bats, mice, monkeys•Even some reptiles and amphibians!

Pollinators

World Crop Pollination73% Bees - 5% beetles19% flies - 4% birds6.5 % bats - 5% wasps4% butterflies and moths

Why do animals pollinate plants?• They get a REWARD: food! In

exchange for moving their pollen to another flower

• Nectar – a sugary solution produced in special flower glands called nectaries

• Nectar concentration matches energy requirements of the pollinator: bird- and bee-pollinated flowers have different sugar conc.

• Pollen – is high in protein, some bees and beetles eat it. • Flowers can produce two kinds of pollen: a normal and a

sterile, but tasty, kind, for the insect.

Mammals: bats and mice

• Bats pollinate at night,so flowers are white

• Mouse-pollinated flowersare usually inconspicuous,they open at night

Birds• Birds have a good sense

of color, they like yellow orred flowers…

• But birds do not have a goodsense of smell, so bird-pollinatedflowers usually have little odor.

• Flowers provide fluid nectar ingreater quantities than insects

• Hummingbird-pollinated flowersusually have long, tubular corolla

• Pollen is large and sticky

Butterflies and moths• Also guided by sight and smell• Butterflies can see red and orange

flowers• Usually shaped as a long tube

because of insect’sproboscis – to get nectar

• Moth-pollinated flowersare usually white or pale,with sweet, strong odor – for night pollination.

Flies and beetles• Flies like flowers that smell

like dung or rotten meat.• Lay their eggs there, but larvae

die due to lack of food

• Beetles pollinate flowersthat are dull in color, buthave very strong odor

Animal pollinators: Bees• Bees – are the most important group of flower

pollinators• They live on the nectar and feed

larvae, also eat the pollen.• Bees are guided by sight and

smell• See yellowyellow and blue colors,

also ultraviolet light (not red)• Flowers have

“honey guides” and bee landing platforms..

Insect pollinators • Apis species- mellifera, cerana, dorsata and florea• Stingless bees• Bumble bees• Alkali bees• Scolids• Andrenids• Xylocopids• Halictids• Megachilids• Anthophorids• Syrphids- Episyrphus, Eristalis, Ischiodon• Other dipterans like Musca, midges, calliphorids• Lepidopterans

Fig-wasp mutualism

Fig trees (Ficus) ~750 tropical species, all of which depend entirely on wasps for pollination

Figs are not fruits – they are specialized inflorescences with hundreds of unisexual flowers

INSECT POLLINATORS AS IMPORTANT INPUT IN CROPS

• About 85 per cent crop plants- cross-pollinated

• About 50 million ha of land in the country under pollinator dependent crops especially honey bees like fruit, vegetables, oilseeds, legumes and pulses.

• Not all fruits develop simply as a result of ovule fertilization

Non- social bees

Honey beesApisApis spp. spp. NonNon-Apis-Apis spp. spp.

Apis floreaApis dorsata

Apis mellifera Apis cerana

Melipona sp.

Bombus sp.

Honey Bees as Pollinators• According to estimates the value of additional yields obtained

by pollination service rendered by honey bees is 15-20 times more than the value of all hive products put together.

• The value of bee pollination in Western Europe is estimated to be 30-50 times the value of honey and wax production in the region.

• It is being increasingly realized that bees could be less expensive input for promoting sustainable and eco-friendly agriculture and enhancing crop productivity.

• Honey Bees play vital role in sustaining plant bio-diversity with environmental stability.

• Crops/flowers are essentially required for development of honey bees. In present Indian agricultural scenario honey bees should be treated as input for over all development for agriculture.

Crops known to require or benefit from insect pollination.Fruits crops Seed crops

For food, oils For propagationand fibers

Almond AppleApricot AvocadoBlackberryCherryCranberry CucumbersCurrantDewberryEgg plantGooseberryGrapeGuavaLoquat

MangoMuskmelonNectarineOkraPapayaPeachPearPepperPersimonPlum & prunePumpkinsQuinceSquashStrawberrywatermelon

Beans (horse)Beans (Limas)BuckwheatCeleryCottonFlaxMustardRapeRayaSunflowerToria

Alfalfa AsparagusBroccoliBrussels sproutBuckwheatCabbageCauliflowerCeleryClovers CollardCottonCorianderCucumberEgg plant

OnionOkraPepperPumpkinRadishRapeRutabagaSquashSunflowerSweet cloverTrefoilTurnipVetchesWater-melon

PER CENT INCREASE IN YIELDS BY BEE POLLINATION OVER SELF POLLINATION OF DIFFERENT FIELD AND HORTICULTURAL CROPS

Crop Per cent increase(a) Orchard crops Apple 180 to 6950 Cherry 56 to 1000 Citrus Varieties 21 to 411 Guava 70 to 140 Litchi 4538 to 10246 Orange 471 to 900 Pears 240 to 6014 Persimmon 20 Plums 6.7 to 2739 Strawberry 38 to 68

Crop Per cent increase(c)Oilseeds

Brown mustard 13 to 222 Linseed 2 to 40 Rai 18 Rape 12 to 139 Sunflower 72 to 82 Toria 66 to 120 White mustard 128 to 152

(b) Vegetables Asparagus 12405 Cabbage 100 to 300 Carrot 9 to 135 Onion 354 to 9878 Radish 22 to 100 Turnip 100 to 125

(d) Others American cotton 5 to 20 Alfalfa 23 to 19733 Berseem 23 to 150 Broad beans 7 to 90 Buckwheat 63 Coffee 17 to 83 Fennel 100 Niger 24 to 173

Mishra & Garg (2002)

Honey Bee Potential to enhance Crop yields

In 1982US Department of Agriculture

22,000 Bartlett Pear Trees (Virginia State) Introduction of Bee Hives brought about a total transformation

in fruit production from zero yield to optimum yield situation.Pollinator management have now become (commApplied Pollination on expression) associated Managed Pollination with enhancing productivity

by Pollinators.

Per cent increase in yield by bee pollination over self pollination in

BiharSl.

Crop % increase in yield

No. of Apis mellifera colony/ha required for

pollination1. Rapeseed 26 - 31 12. Toria 20 - 48 13. Sunflower 68 - 78 44. Niger 24 - 42 45. Onion 152 - 234 86. Litchi 25 - 30 47. Citrus spp. 35 - 67 48. Coriander 9 - 14 29. Fennel 6 - 11 210 Pigeonpea 21-30 4Kumar, N. & Agarwal, M. L. (2012). Status report on pollination studies at RAU Pusa centre

Pollination level of different crops grown in India

Comman Name Scientific Name Remarks

Fruit crops Almond Coconut Date Guava Jamun Jujube Papaya Peach Watermelon

Amygdalus communis

Cocus nuciferaPhoenix dactyliferaPsidium guajavaSyzygium vulgare Ziziphus jujuba Carjea papayaPrunus persica Chtrullus lanatus

No bees. No fruit formationCPECPECPECPECPECPEBP increases yieldCPE

BP Bee Pollination CPE Cross Pollination Essential

Comman Name Scientific Name RemarksVegetable Crops Balsam pear CabbageCucumber Egg plantLettuce PumpkinRadishTomato

LoofahBottle gourd

Momodica chrantisBrassica oleaceaCucumis sativumSolanum melogenaLectuea sativaCucurbitaRaphanus sativusLycopersicon esculentumLuffa cylindricaLagenaria siceraria

CPECPECPECP increases productionCP increases seed productionCPE CPECPE

CPECPE

Contd.

Comman Name Scientific Name Remarks

Oilseed CropsNigerOlivePeanutSesameSunflower

Pulse CropsBroad beanPigeonpea

Guizotia abbyssinica Olea europeaeArachis hypogeaSesamum indiucmHelianthus annus

Vicia fabaCajnus cajan

BP increases yieldCP increases fruit setBP increases seed yieldBP increases seed yieldBP increases yield

BP increase seed yield BP increases seed yield

Contd.

Comman Name Scientific Name Remarks

Species, condiments and beverages Black pepperCloveFennelTea

Piper nigrumSyzygium aromaticumFoeniculum vulgare Camellia sinensis

BP essential CPEBP increases seed yield CPE

Contd.

Comman Name Scientific Name Remarks

Forage cropsAlfalfaBarseem

Fibre CropsCottonsunnhemp

Medicage sativaTrifolium alexandrinum

Gossypium spCrotolairia juncea

BP increases yieldBP increases yield

BP increases yieldBP increases yield

Contd.

Honey Bees for Hybrid Seed Production

Cotton Sunflower Rapeseed – Mustard Pigeon pea Soybean Broad or field bean

Carrot Onion CucumberCauliflower

Honey bees are needed for optimum seed set in many crop hybrids, and the hybrids to be developed should have characteristics which can make them more attractive to bees and other pollinators.

Contd.

Preparing colonies for crop pollination

• Need not necessarily have much honey• No lack of adequate space• Swarming• 6-7 brood frames• Up to top bars• Unsealed brood• Brood cells should be compact

Pollinating colony

Colonies strength for pollination

• Strong• Blanket of bees covering the tops of frames• Every square cm. with bees• Ready to have an extra super• Deterioration in foraging conditions (small v/s

strong)• Queen pheromone dilution (encourages foraging)

Moving colonies to crops

• At night• Day time necessity: hot and dry conditions• Spraying with water• Moving time (more than 48 hours often kills

brood)• Moving to new site within flight range• Reduce drifting (different directions, spacing

them apart, near land marks, different coloured boards).

Concentration of colonies for pollination

• Number of colonies depend on:• Pollination requirement of the crop• Size of the crop• Concentration of flowers and their attractiveness.• Amount of nectar and pollen available• Behaviour of bee on the crop and ability to pollinate • Competing insect pollinators including honey bees and

crops• Cost of obtaining the bees• Best to over estimate rather than underestimate• Quite variable. Normally 2-5 colonies.

Distance from crop

• Place in the crop• Spend less time flying to and fro• At short distances away from field leads

to reduction in proportion of bees visiting the bees (particularly during poor weather)

• Honey bees concentrate their activity to near distances.

Pyrus mallus Orchard exampleFavourable conditions

0.6 km. away weight gain 4.8to6kg.1.2km away weight gain 0.9kg.

Unfavourable conditionsColonies at orchards gained 1.4kg

0.6km away lost 2kg1.2km away lost 5.5kg

Conditioning colonies to a particular crop

• Honey bees are not taken to crop until it has begun to flower.

• Bees tend to visit the same species they did before the shifting.

• Colonies are not taken to crop until it is flowering sufficiently to be the predominant species in the locality.

• Great proportions of flowers of crop are open before the colonies are taken to it . Then fail to pollinate.

• Production of nectar and pollen time and colony placement (hive entrances of colonies should remain close).

Directing bees to crops

• Feeding sugar syrup (Training)• Feeding sugar syrup with scent• Reflecting ultra-violet light in crops

Proportion of pollen gatherers• Colonies should contain plenty of brood• Stimulative sugar feeding• Adding extra combs of brood• Removing pollen stores. Pollen gatherers

more important

Increasing crop attractiveness• Selective breeding• By altering plant nutrient supply• Cultural practices e.g. irrigation.

SEVERAL REASONS FOR BEE LOSSES

Risk of Extinction

Species of Described Evaluated-ability to survive

Threatened

Birds 9932 100% 12.0%

Mammals 4842 97% 23.6%

Insects 1,004,898 0.08% 73.0%

May Berenbaum, 2009

Need to conserve pollinator biodiversity To realize yield potentials

- of several cross pollinated crops- hybrid seed production- crops grown under polyhouses To conserve the rare and endemic species of honey bees & pollinatorsSurvival of plant species through mixing of gene poolIn intensified and diversified sustenance agriculture

One of the main reasons for not able to break the yield plateau of some cross pollinated crops despite having the best variety and adoption of all technologies, is the depletion in population of pollinators, which results into inadequate pollination and thereby reduced productivity.

Depletion in population of native insect pollinators in natural habitats due to habitat destruction, mechanization and other agricultural practices, changing cropping pattern, pesticidal application and pollution are of serious concern.

CONCLUSIONS

How much loss the nation has accrued over the decades because of decline in population of pollinators leading to inadequate pollination and thereby reduced productivity is difficult to assess.

In the present situation, it is of pivotal significance to generate techniques for conservation, augmentation and utilization of pollinators including honey bees for maximizing pollination and to increase the production of various crops.

CONCLUSIONS

WORLD WITHOUT BEES…………..“If the bee disappeared off the surface of

the globe, then man would only have four years of life left. No more pollination, no more plants, no more animals, no more man”

ALBERT EINSTEIN 59

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