CRIM2004CRIM2004The Application of Psychology to The Application of Psychology to Crime and JusticeCrime and JusticeLecture 2Lecture 2 Theoretical Antecedents of the Fear & Risk Theoretical Antecedents of the Fear & Risk of Crimeof Crime

The Psychology of victimisationThe Psychology of victimisation

Dr. Michelle Cowley, M.Cowley@soton.ac.uk

OverviewOverview Illustrative exampleIllustrative example

Critically thinking about crime statistics: Critically thinking about crime statistics: Objective risk and perceived fear Objective risk and perceived fear

Societal and Psychological factors Societal and Psychological factors

Psychological consequences of victimisationPsychological consequences of victimisation

EvaluationEvaluation

Illustrative example: Illustrative example: Hidden statisticsHidden statistics Imagine that a new island is discoveredImagine that a new island is discovered

The average earnings per annum are £1,000,000The average earnings per annum are £1,000,000

The population of the island is two peopleThe population of the island is two people

One person earns £2,000,000, the other is One person earns £2,000,000, the other is unemployedunemployed

The disadvantages of ‘average incidence’ The disadvantages of ‘average incidence’

Do statistical increases/decreases in crime incidence Do statistical increases/decreases in crime incidence reflect the increases/decreases in our perception of reflect the increases/decreases in our perception of crime incidences?crime incidences?

Critically thinking about crime statisticsCritically thinking about crime statistics

Is our fear of crime justified by its extent?Is our fear of crime justified by its extent?

Home Office Home Office www.homeoffice.gov.uk/rds British Crime Survey (BCS)British Crime Survey (BCS)

Statistical reports are useful, but may not Statistical reports are useful, but may not represent accurate information represent accurate information

Statistical reports may also be Statistical reports may also be misinterpreted depending on how they are misinterpreted depending on how they are stated or portrayed by the media.stated or portrayed by the media.

Crime in England and WalesCrime in England and WalesHome Office Statistical Bulletin 26Home Office Statistical Bulletin 26thth January 2006 January 2006

Do you think that there is a higher risk of crime Do you think that there is a higher risk of crime this year than last?this year than last?

What are your reasons?What are your reasons?

The risk of being a victim of crime (23%); lowest The risk of being a victim of crime (23%); lowest since the survey (BCS) began in 1981since the survey (BCS) began in 1981

Violent crime is stable compared with the Violent crime is stable compared with the previous year (BCS)previous year (BCS)

Domestic burglary recorded by the police Domestic burglary recorded by the police decreased by 7% (remember this percentage)decreased by 7% (remember this percentage)

The ‘Dark Figure’ (unreported crime which we will The ‘Dark Figure’ (unreported crime which we will show still exists even in the 2006 statistics…show still exists even in the 2006 statistics…

Table 2:Table 2: Percentage risk of being a victim based on British Crime Percentage risk of being a victim based on British Crime Survey interviews in the 12 months to September 2005 compared with Survey interviews in the 12 months to September 2005 compared with the previous 12 months [adapted from the Home Office Statistical the previous 12 months [adapted from the Home Office Statistical Bulletin, (Kara & Upson, 2006)]Bulletin, (Kara & Upson, 2006)]

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

Interviews in Oct2003 to Sept 2004

Interviews in Oct2004 to Sept 2005

All household crimeDomestic burglaryAll vehicle theftsAll personal crimeWith injuryWith no injuryAll BCS crime

‘All personal crime’ dropped significantly at the p = .05 level, two tail tests

Domestic burglary didNot drop 7% according To the BCS!

Table 2:Table 2: A comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of A comparison of the advantages and disadvantages of the methods employed by the methods employed by Police crime reportingPolice crime reporting and the and the British British Crime Survey (BCS) Crime Survey (BCS) (Adapted from Maguire, 2002)(Adapted from Maguire, 2002)

Police reports Police reports Members of the public actual Members of the public actual experience of crimeexperience of crime

Notifiable offencesNotifiable offences All offencesAll offencesOffences affecting all age Offences affecting all age groupsgroups

Offences affecting those Offences affecting those above 16yrs, homeless, above 16yrs, homeless, private sector…private sector…

Measures all crime, even Measures all crime, even crime that does not have an crime that does not have an immediate victimimmediate victim

Does not have the power to Does not have the power to measure ‘victimless’ crimemeasure ‘victimless’ crime

Crimes of a more serious level Crimes of a more serious level than othersthan others

Crimes of all seriousnessCrimes of all seriousness

May be affected by political May be affected by political trendstrends

Not as affected by political Not as affected by political trendstrends

…

Does some crime ‘disappear’ from official Does some crime ‘disappear’ from official statistics (i.e. police reports) or ‘remain statistics (i.e. police reports) or ‘remain pending’ from the event to conviction?pending’ from the event to conviction? Step 1.Step 1. Does the victim notice the crime? Does the victim notice the crime?

Victimless crimeVictimless crime Unnoticed crimeUnnoticed crime

Step 2.Step 2. Will the victim report the crime? Will the victim report the crime? Fear (humiliation, being blamed…return to this shortly)Fear (humiliation, being blamed…return to this shortly) Beliefs about police competency Beliefs about police competency

Step 3.Step 3. Will police record the crime? Will police record the crime? Notifiability (e.g., Ford vs Ferrari wing mirror)Notifiability (e.g., Ford vs Ferrari wing mirror) Change in policy over time (e.g., Steven Lawrence Inquiry)Change in policy over time (e.g., Steven Lawrence Inquiry) Political issues (e.g., Gudjonsson Political issues (e.g., Gudjonsson et alet al., 2004)., 2004) Missing persons are in the inquiry stageMissing persons are in the inquiry stage Policing decision processes (e.g., malicious accusations)Policing decision processes (e.g., malicious accusations)

Step 4.Step 4. Will the offender be caught? Will the offender be caught? Not all reported crimes are solved Not all reported crimes are solved Decision process (e.g., 15-16yr old shoplifting)Decision process (e.g., 15-16yr old shoplifting)

Step 5.Step 5. Will the offender be prosecuted? Will the offender be prosecuted? Seriousness of offenceSeriousness of offence Strength of the evidence (e.g., Billy Jo Jenkins)Strength of the evidence (e.g., Billy Jo Jenkins) Enough evidence to go to trial (i.e., Crown Prosecution Enough evidence to go to trial (i.e., Crown Prosecution

Service decisions)Service decisions)

Step 6.Step 6. Will the offender be found guilty if Will the offender be found guilty if he/she is in fact guilty?he/she is in fact guilty?

Justice is a balancing of many complex considerationsJustice is a balancing of many complex considerations Manslaughter versus IntentManslaughter versus Intent

Tackling the ‘dark figure’: Tackling the ‘dark figure’: The Simmons Report (2000)The Simmons Report (2000) In July 2000 the Home Office published a discussion by In July 2000 the Home Office published a discussion by

Jon SimmonsJon Simmons from its Performance and Strategy Unit from its Performance and Strategy Unit

‘‘Review of Crime Statistics’Review of Crime Statistics’ (Home Office 2000: i) (Home Office 2000: i)

Picture of Crime in England and Wales based on a Picture of Crime in England and Wales based on a collating of police crime and incidence data, the BCS collating of police crime and incidence data, the BCS data, data from research studies and information from data, data from research studies and information from independent agencies and institutions independent agencies and institutions

A A Meta-analysis Meta-analysis may produce a more accurate may produce a more accurate ‘picture’ ‘picture’

A view incorporating multiple perspectives versus a A view incorporating multiple perspectives versus a series of snapshots series of snapshots

Victimisation and Fear of Crime: Societal Victimisation and Fear of Crime: Societal FactorsFactors GeographicalGeographical

North of England; Main road; council estate; inner cityNorth of England; Main road; council estate; inner city Socio-economic statusSocio-economic status AgeAge

youngyoung GenderGender

Men and violent crimeMen and violent crime Patterns of routine activityPatterns of routine activity

Going out oftenGoing out often

Example: Domestic burglaryExample: Domestic burglary (Kershaw et al., 2000) (Kershaw et al., 2000) Lower levels of disposable incomeLower levels of disposable income Inner-city; rentedInner-city; rented Single adult and lone parentSingle adult and lone parent Unemployed heads of householdsUnemployed heads of households

Fear and Perception of Crime: Fear and Perception of Crime: Psychological FactorsPsychological Factors Locus of controlLocus of control (Rotter, 1966; Bandura, 1999) (Rotter, 1966; Bandura, 1999)

Internal locus of control (~not at risk)Internal locus of control (~not at risk) External locus of control (~at risk)External locus of control (~at risk)

The Just World HypothesisThe Just World Hypothesis (Lerner, 1970; (Lerner, 1970; Rowe, 2001)Rowe, 2001) Individuals get what they deserve (~not at risk)Individuals get what they deserve (~not at risk) The world is a fair place (Lypfer, 1998; ~not at risk)The world is a fair place (Lypfer, 1998; ~not at risk) Blaming the victim (~not at risk)Blaming the victim (~not at risk) To feel control over their own lives?To feel control over their own lives?

~ = perception

Fear and Perception of Crime: Fear and Perception of Crime: Psychological Factors continued…Psychological Factors continued… The Fundamental Attribution ErrorThe Fundamental Attribution Error (Ross, 1977) (Ross, 1977)

Blame dispositional factors on others’ Blame dispositional factors on others’ behaviour behaviour

Blame situational factors for own behaviour Blame situational factors for own behaviour (Schneider, 1995; Rowe, 2001)(Schneider, 1995; Rowe, 2001)

Personality traits Personality traits Neuroticism Neuroticism (e.g., Eysenck, 1965; Krahe, 1992)(e.g., Eysenck, 1965; Krahe, 1992) Self-efficacy Self-efficacy (e.g., Bandura, 1999)(e.g., Bandura, 1999)

The Social Psychological Fear of The Social Psychological Fear of Crime Model (van der Wurff, 1989)Crime Model (van der Wurff, 1989)

Attractivity:Attractivity: how much people see themselves as how much people see themselves as an attractive victiman attractive victim

Evil intent:Evil intent: how much people attribute criminal how much people attribute criminal intentions to othersintentions to others

Power:Power: how much control/self-assurance to people how much control/self-assurance to people think they have to cope with an assault by anotherthink they have to cope with an assault by another

Criminalizable space:Criminalizable space: characteristics of the place characteristics of the place

All the above contribute to a person’s overall fear All the above contribute to a person’s overall fear of crime in a given situationof crime in a given situation

Psychological consequences of Psychological consequences of victimisationvictimisation

The Psychological Effects of Repeat VictimisationThe Psychological Effects of Repeat Victimisation Farrell and Pease (1993) found that 4% of the population Farrell and Pease (1993) found that 4% of the population

experienced 44% of recorded crime.experienced 44% of recorded crime. Is prior victimisation the best predictor of future crime Is prior victimisation the best predictor of future crime

(Pease, 1998)?(Pease, 1998)? HabituationHabituation

Impact of being a victimImpact of being a victim Anxiety, depression, shame, humiliation, shock, Anxiety, depression, shame, humiliation, shock,

helplessness, embarrassment, anger, fear…helplessness, embarrassment, anger, fear…

Post Traumatic Stress DisorderPost Traumatic Stress Disorder (DSM IV) (DSM IV) Sexual assaultSexual assault Violent crimeViolent crime BurglaryBurglary

*Remember to relate these to an individual’s cognitive and affective thought patterns

DSM IVDSM IV criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder criteria for post-traumatic stress disorder (Adapted from American Psychological Association, cited in Roberts 2000)(Adapted from American Psychological Association, cited in Roberts 2000)

Criterion AThe person has experienced an event that is outside the range of usual human

experience and that would be markedly distressing to almost anyone, e.g. serious threat to one’s life or physical integrity… one’s children…spouse…relatives…friends…sudden destruction of one’s home or community…seeing another person…seriously injured or killed…

Criterion BThe traumatic event is persistently re-experienced in at least one of the following

ways:1 Recurrent and intrusive distressing recollections of the event…2 Recurrent distressing dreams of the event3 Sudden acting of feeling as if the traumatic event were recurring…4 Intense psychological distress at exposure to events that symbolize or

resemble an aspect of the traumatic event…

Criterion CPersistent avoidance of stimuli associated with the trauma or numbing of general

responsiveness (not present before the trauma)… (Continued on next page)

1 Efforts to avoid thoughts or feelings associated with the trauma2 Efforts to avoid activities or situations that arouse recollections of the trauma3 Inability to recall and important aspect of the trauma4 Markedly diminished interest in significant activities…5 Feeling detachment or estrangement from others6 Restricted range of affect…7 Sense of a foreshortened future, e.g. does not expect to have a career, marriage,

or children, or a long life

Criterion DPersistent symptoms of increased arousal (not present before the trauma), as Indicated by at least two of the following:1 Difficulty falling or staying asleep2 Irritability or outbursts of anger3 Difficultly concentrating4 Hypervigilance5 Exaggerated startle response6 Physiological reactivity upon exposure to events that symbolise or resemble

an aspect of the traumatic event

Criterion EDuration of the disturbance (symptoms in B, C, and D) of at least one month, or aDelay of up to six months

Example: Explanatory coping strategies for Example: Explanatory coping strategies for violent assault (Peterson, 2000)violent assault (Peterson, 2000)

Pessimistic Pessimistic Explanatory StyleExplanatory Style

Optimistic Optimistic Explanatory StyleExplanatory Style

Internal (it is all my Internal (it is all my fault)fault)

External (I did my External (I did my best; there is nothing best; there is nothing I could have done)I could have done)

Fixed (this misery will Fixed (this misery will last forever)last forever)

Dynamic (things will Dynamic (things will improve)improve)

Global (it affects Global (it affects everything I do)everything I do)

Limited impact (at Limited impact (at least I have the rest least I have the rest of my life)of my life)

Evaluation Evaluation Remember to think critically about crime Remember to think critically about crime

statisticsstatistics

There are societal AND psychological factors There are societal AND psychological factors affecting how people perceive the risk of affecting how people perceive the risk of becoming a victim of crimebecoming a victim of crime

Societal and Psychological explanations are Societal and Psychological explanations are not necessarily dissociated from one anothernot necessarily dissociated from one another

‘‘Victim’ or ‘Survivor’ of Crime?Victim’ or ‘Survivor’ of Crime?