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Lecture one
Anatomy is the science of the structure of the body. the term is applied usually to human anatomy. The word is derived indirectly from the Greek anatome, a term built from ana, meaning "up," and tome, meaning "a cutting" (compare the words tome, microtome, and epitome) i.e. the dissection"
it is necessary to learn some useful terms for describing body structure. Knowing these terms will make it much easier for us to understand the content of the body in future studies . . Three groups of terms are introduced here:1- terms describing body cavities2- Terms describing planes of the body, 3- Directional ( movements )terms,and 4- Terms of position,
Planes:
Medical professionals often refer to sections of the body in terms of anatomical planes (flat surfaces). These planes are imaginary surfaces - vertical or horizontal - drawn through an upright body. The terms are used to describe a specific body part.
1- Coronal Plane (Frontal Plane): A verticle plane running from side to side; divides the body or any of its parts into into dorsal and ventral (back and front, or posterior and anterior) portions.
2- Sagittal Plane (Lateral Plane): This term comes from Latin. Sagitta means " an arrow ", A vertical plane running from front ( anterior ) to back ( posterior ); divides the body or any of its parts into right and left sides.It might be called Median plane: Sagittal plane through the midline of the body; divides the body or any of its parts into right and left halves
3- Axial Plane (Transverse Plane or horizontal ): Is a horizontal plane; divides the body or any of its parts into upper and lower parts or cranial and caudal (head and tail). A transverse plane, also known as an axial plane or cross-section.
The Cavities: The cavities, or spaces, of the body contain the internal organs, or viscera. The two main cavities are called the ventral and dorsal cavities. The ventral is the larger cavity and is subdivided into two parts (thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities) by the diaphragm, a dome-shaped respiratory muscle.
Thoracic cavity : The upper ventral, thoracic, or chest cavity contains the heart, lungs, trachea, esophagus, large blood vessels, and nerves. The thoracic cavity is bound laterally by the ribs (covered by costal pleura) and the diaphragm caudally (covered by diaphragmatic pleura).
2- Abdominal and pelvic cavity:
The lower part of the ventral(abdominopelvic) cavity can be further divided into two portions: abdominal portion and pelvic portion.
The abdominal cavity contains most of 1-the gastrointestinal tract as well as2- the kidneys and adrenal glands. The pelvic cavity contains most of1- the urogenital system as well as2- the rectum.
II - Dorsal cavity: The smaller of the two main cavities is called the dorsal cavity. As its name implies, it contains organs lying more posterior in the body. The dorsal cavity, again, can be divided into two portions. The upper portion, or the cranial cavity, houses the brain, and the lower portion, or vertebral canal houses the spinal cord.
Lecture two
3- Directional ( movements )terms1-Adjusting angle between two parts: A-Flexion - Bending movement that decreases the angle between two parts. Bending the elbow, are examples of flexion. When sitting down, the knees are flexed. Flexion of the hip or shoulder moves the limb forward (towards the anterior side of the body).
B-Extension – The opposite of flexion; a straightening movement that increases the angle between body parts.
2- Adjusting relation to midline of body:A-Abduction – A motion that pulls a structure or part away from the midline of the body (or, in the case of fingers and toes, spreading the digits apart, away from the centerline of the hand or foot). Abduction of the wrist is called radial deviation. Raising the arms laterally, to the sides, is an example of abduction.
B-Adduction – A motion that pulls a structure or part towards the midline of the body, or towards the midline of a limb. Dropping the arms to the sides, or bringing the knees together, are examples of adduction. In the case of the fingers or toes, adduction is closing the digits together. Adduction of the wrist is called ulnar deviation.
3- Rotating body parts:
A- Internal rotation (or medial rotation) of the shoulder or hip would point the toes or the flexed forearm inwards (towards the midline).
B- External rotation (or lateral rotation) is the opposite. It would turn the toes or the flexed forearm outwards (away from the midline).
Anatomical position: In this position the body is straight in standing position with eyes also looking straight. The palms are hanging by the sides close to the body and are facing forwards. The feet also point forwards and the legs are fully extended. Anatomical position is very important because the relations of all structures are described as presumed to be in anatomical position.
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4- Terms of position,
Lecture Three
Terms of position:1-Ipsilateral (Latin ipse; self/same): on the same side as another structure. Thus, the left arm is ipsilateral to the left leg.
2-Contralateral (Latin contra; against): on the opposite from another structure. Thus, the left arm is contralateral to the right arm, or the right leg.
3-Superficial (Latin superfacies; at the surface or face): near the outer surface of the body. Thus, skin is superficial to the muscle layer. The opposite is "deep", or "visceral".
4-Deep: further away from the surface of the organism. Thus, the muscular layer is deep to the skin, but superficial to the intestines. This is one of the few terms where the English vernacular is prevalent. The proper anglicised Latin term would be profound (Latin profundus; due to depth), but this word has other meanings in English. In other languages, the equivalent term is usually similar to "profound" (e.g. profond, meaning deep, in French). 5-Intermediate (Latin intermedius; inter, between and medius, middle): between two other structures. Thus, the navel is intermediate to (or intermediate between) the left arm and the contralateral (right) leg. 6-Visceral (Latin viscus; internal organs, flesh): organs within the body's cavities. The stomach is within the abdominal cavity, and is thus visceral
Supine position: In this position the body is lying down with face pointing upwards. All the remaining positions are similar to anatomical position with the only difference of being in a horizontal plane rather than a vertical plane.
Prone position: This is the position in which the back of the body is directed upwards. The body lies in a horizontal plane with face directed downwards.
Lecture Three2016/1/11
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM
THE NERVOUS SYSTEM is the most complicated and highly organized of the various systems which make up the human body
Its mechanism is concerned with the correlation and integration of various bodily processes and the reactions and adjustments of the organism to its environment. In addition the cerebral cortex is concerned with conscious life.
The central nervous system consists1-of the encephalon or brain, contained within the cranium, and2- the medulla spinalis or spinal cord, lodged in the vertebral canal; the two portions are continuous with one another at the level of the upper border of the atlas vertebra
The human brain has three major subdivisions : 1-cerebrum :the principal and most anterior part of the brain in vertebrates, located in the front area of the skull and consisting of two hemispheres, left and right, separated by a fissure. It is responsible for the integration of complex sensory and neural functions and the initiation and coordination of voluntary activity in the body.
2-The Brainstem. The brainstem is the core of the brain. We consider it in three parts--the hindbrainstem, the midbrain stem, and the forebrainstem. In general, the brainstem is made up of many nuclei and fiber tracts. It is a primary coordinating center of the human nervous system. 1- The Mid-brain 2- The pons 3- The medulla oblongata
3-The Cerebellum. Over the hindbrainstem is the cerebellum. The cerebellum is connected to both the midbrainstem and the hindbrainstem. The cerebellum is the primary coordinating center for muscle actions. Here, patterns of movements are properly integrated. Thus, information is sent to the appropriate muscles in the appropriate sequences. Also, the cerebellum is very much involved in the postural equilibrium of the body.
The peripheral nervous system consists of a series of nerves by which the central nervous system is connected with the various tissues of the body. For descriptive purposes these nerves may be arranged in two groups, cerebrospinal and sympathetic,
The spinal cord The spinal cord is a thin, tubular structure that is an extension of the central nervous system from the brain and is enclosed in and protected by the bony vertebral column within the vertebral cavity. The main function of the spinal cord is transmission of neural inputs from the periphery to the brain and vice versa ,it is a vital structure for our survival and functional capacity.
The spinal cord extends from the medulla oblongata in the brain and continues to the conus medullaris near the lumbar level at L1-2, terminating in a fibrous extension known as the filum terminale. The adult spinal cord is approximately 18 inches long, ovoid-shaped, and is enlarged in the cervical and lumbar regions.
Spinal cord segmentsThe spinal cord is divided into 31 different segments, with motor nerve roots exiting in the ventral aspects and sensory nerve roots entering in the dorsal aspects. The ventral and dorsal roots later join to form paired spinal nerves, one on each side of the spinal cord.There are 31 spinal cord segments:8 cervical segments 12 thoracic segments 5 lumbar segments 5 sacral segments 1 coccygeal segment
There are two regions where the spinal cord enlarges:1-Cervical enlargement - corresponds roughly to the brachial plexus nerves, which innervate the upper limb. It includes spinal cord segments from about C4 to T1. The vertebral levels of the enlargement are roughly the same (C4 to T1).
2-Lumbosacral enlargement - corresponds to the lumbosacral plexus nerves, which innervate the lower limb. It comprises the spinal cord segments from L2 to S3, and is found about the vertebral levels of T9 to T12.
In medicine, a lumbar puncture (colloquially known as a spinal tap) is a diagnostic and at times therapeutic procedure that is performed in order to collect a sample of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for biochemical, microbiological, and cytological analysis, or rarely to relieve increased intracranial pressure.
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Lecture four18-1-2016
The Joints of the body
The JOINTSA site where two or more bones come together, whether or not movement occurs between them, is called a joint
Joints are classified according to the tissues that lie between the articulating
bones: 1- fibrous joints,2- cartilaginous joints, and 3-synovial joints.
joints can be further classified into two general categories. These are : 1- those in which the skeletal elements are separated by a cavity (i.e. synovial joints); 2- those in which there is no cavity and the components are held together by connective tissue (i.e. solid joints).
1- those in which the skeletal elements are separated by a cavity (i.e. synovial joints);
2- those in which there is no cavity ( solid joints). and the components are held together by connective tissue : 1- fibres 2- cartilage-
Synovial joints Synovial joints are connections between skeletal components where the elements involved are separated by a narrow articular cavity (Fig. ). In addition to containing an articular cavity, these joints have a number of characteristic features.
characteristic featuresof synovial joints
1- The articular surfaces of the bones are covered by a thin layer of hyaline cartilage separated by a joint cavity
2- The cavity of the joint is lined by synovial membrane, which extends from the margins of one articular surface to those of the other
3-The synovial membrane is protected on the outside by a tough fibrous membrane referred to as the capsule of the joint.
4- The articular surfaces are lubricated by a viscous fluid called synovial fluid, which is produced by the synovial membrane
5- the presence of fibrous ligaments .
6- fibrocartilage are interposed between the articular surfaces (articular discs ) . some of Synovial joints like TMJ.
Synovial joints can be classified according to the arrangement of the articular surfaces and the types of movement that are possible.
1- Plane joints: In plane joints, the apposed articular
surfaces are flat or almost flat, and this permits the bones to slide on one another.
Examples of these joints are the sternoclavicular and acromioclavicular
joints (Fig. ).
2-Hinge joints: Hinge joints resemble the hinge on a door, so that flexion and extension movements are possible. Examples of these joints are the elbow, knee, and ankle joints
3-Pivot joints: In pivot joints, a
central bony pivot is surrounded by a bony ligamentous atlantoaxial and
superior radioulnar joints are good
examples
4- Condyloid joints: Condyloid joints have two distinct convex surfaces that articulate with two concave surfaces. The movements of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction are possible together with a small amount of rotation. The metacarpophalangeal joints (Fig. ).
5- Ellipsoid joints: In ellipsoid joints, an elliptical convex articular surface fits into an elliptical concave articular surface. The movements of flexion, extension, abduction, and adduction can take place, but rotation is impossible. The wrist joint is a good example (Fig. ).
6- Saddle joints: In saddle joints, the articular surfaces are reciprocally concavoconvex and resemble a saddle on a horse's back. These joints permit flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, and rotation. The best example of this type of joint is the carpometacarpal joint of the thumb (Fig. ).
7- Ball-and-socket joints: In ball-and-socket joints, a ball-shaped head of one bone fits into a socketlike concavity of another. This arrangement permits free movements, including flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, medial rotation, lateral rotation, and circumduction. The shoulder and hip joints are good examples of this type of joint (Fig. ).
The stability of a joint depends on three main factors:1-the shape, 2-size, and 3-arrangement of the articular surfaces; 4-the ligaments; and the tone of the muscles around the joint.
Lecture Five25/1/2016
The Skeletal System- ( The Bones )
The Bone Bone is a living tissue capable of changing its structure as the result of the stresses to which it is subjected. Like other connective tissues, bone consists of:
1- cells, 2- fibers, and 3- matrix.
Bone is hard because of the calcification of its extracellular matrix and possesses a degree of elasticity because of the presence of organic fibers.
Bone exists in two forms: 1- compact and 2- cancellous.
Compact bone appears as a solid mass; cancellous bone consists of a branching network of trabeculae (Fig. ). The trabeculae are arranged in such a manner as to resist the stresses and strains to which the bone is exposed.
Functions of Bone in general:
1-a protective function; the skull and vertebral column, for example, protect the brain and spinal cord from injury; the sternum and ribs protect the thoracic and upper abdominal viscera (Fig. ).
2-It serves as a lever, as seen in the long bones of the limbs
3- as an important storage area for calcium salts.. The storage of calciumThe bones store and release calcium in the bones is under hormonal control.
4- It houses and protects within its cavities the delicate blood-forming bone marrow. The bones assist the lymphatic system and immunity
Classification of BonesBones may be classified regionally or according to their general shape :
1- long bones,2- short bones, 3- flat bones, 4- irregular bones, and5- sesamoid bones.
1- Long Bones:Long bones are found in the limbs (e.g., the humerus, femur, metacarpals, metatarsals, and phalanges). Their length is greater than their breadth.. The shaft has a central marrow cavity containing bone marrow. The outer part of the shaft is composed of compact bone that is covered by a connective tissue sheath, the periosteum. The ends of long bones are composed of cancellous bone surrounded by a thin layer of compact bone. The articular surfaces of the ends of the bones are covered by hyaline cartilage.
2-Short Bones:Short bones are found in the hand and foot (e.g., the scaphoid, lunate, talus, and calcaneum). Their length is equal to their breadth.. They are roughly cuboidal in shape and are composed of cancellous bone surrounded by a thin layer of compact bone. Short bones are covered with periosteum, and the articular surfaces are covered by hyaline cartilage.
3- Flat Bones: Flat bones are found in the vault of the skull (e.g., the frontal and parietal bones). They are composed of thin inner and outer layers of compact bone, the tables, separated by a layer of cancellous bone, the diploe. The scapulae, although irregular, are included in this group.
4- Irregular Bones: Irregular bones include those not assigned to the previous groups (e.g., the bones of the skull, the vertebrae, and the pelvic bones). They are composed of a thin shell of compact bone with an interior made up of cancellous bone.
5-Sesamoid Bones:
Sesamoid bones are small nodules of bone that are found in certain tendons where they rub over bony surfaces.. The largest sesamoid bone is the patella, which is located in the tendon of the quadriceps femoris. The function of a sesamoid bone is to reduce friction on the tendon; it can also alter the direction of pull of a tendon
Lecture 61 / 2 / 2016The Muscular System
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Three types of muscles are present in our body :
1-smooth,( Autonomic nervous system control )2- cardiac self contraction. and 3- skeletal ( motor supply) voluntary muscles
Smooth muscle :1- consists of long, spindle-shaped cells closely arranged in bundles or sheets
1- In the tubes of the body the smooth muscles provide: a- the motive power for propelling the contents through the lumen. b- In the digestive system it also causes the ingested food to be thoroughly mixed with the digestive juices. c - A wave of contraction of the circularly arranged fibers passes along the tube, milking the contents onward.
d- By their contraction, the longitudinal fibers pull the wall of the tube proximally over the contents. This method of propulsion is referred to as peristalsis.
e- In storage organs such as the urinary bladder and the uterus, the fibers are irregularly arranged and interlaced with one another. Their contraction is slow and sustained and brings about expulsion of the contents of the organs
5- In the walls of the blood vessels the smooth muscle fibers are arranged circularly and serve to modify the caliber of the lumen. Depending on the organ, smooth muscle fibers may be made to contract by local stretching of the fibers, by nerve impulses from autonomic nerves, or by hormonal stimulation.
II -Cardiac Muscle : Cardiac muscle consists of striated muscle fibers that branch and unite with each other. It forms the myocardium of the heart. Its fibers tend to be arranged in whorls and spirals, and they have the property of spontaneous and rhythmic contraction. Specialized cardiac muscle fibers form the conducting system of the heart. Cardiac muscle is supplied by autonomic nerve fibers that terminate in the nodes of the conducting system and in the myocardium for regulation of the rate contraction of thr heart .
3-The Skeletal (striated ) or voluntary muscles
Skeletal muscles produce the movements of the skeleton; they are sometimes called voluntary muscles and are made up of striped muscle fibers. A skeletal muscle has two or more attachments ( origin and insertion ). The attachment that moves the least is referred to as the origin, and the one that moves the most, the insertion (see figures ). Under varying circumstances the degree of mobility of the attachments may be reversed; therefore, the terms origin and insertion are interchangeable.
The fleshy part of the muscle is referred to as its belly (see figures ). The ends of a muscle are attached to bones, cartilage, or ligaments by cords of fibrous tissue called tendons (see figures ).
Skeletal Muscle Action All movements are the result of the coordinated action of many muscles. However, to understand a muscle's action it is necessary to study it individually.A muscle may work in the following four ways:
1- Prime mover: A muscle is a prime mover when it is the chief muscle or member of a chief group of muscles responsible for a particular movement. For example, the quadriceps femoris is a prime mover in the movement of extending the knee joint (see figures).
2- Antagonist:Any muscle that opposes the action of the prime mover is an antagonist. For example, the biceps brachii opposes the action of the Triceps when the elbow joint is flexed (see figures). Before a prime mover can contract, the antagonist muscle must be equally relaxed; this is brought about by nervous reflex inhibition.
3- Fixator: A fixator contracts isometrically (i.e., contraction increases the tone but does not in itself produce movement) to stabilize the origin of the prime mover so that it can act efficiently. For example, the muscles attaching the shoulder girdle to the trunk contract as fixators to allow the deltoid to act on the shoulder joint (see figures ).
4- Synergist: In many locations in the body the prime mover muscle crosses several joints before it reaches the joint at which its main action takes place. To prevent unwanted movements in an intermediate joint, groups of muscles called synergists contract and stabilize the intermediate joints. For example, the flexor and extensor muscles of the carpus contract to fix the wrist joint, and this allows the long flexor and extensor muscles of the fingers to work efficiently (see figures).
These terms are applied to the action of a particular muscle during a particular movement; many muscles can act as a prime mover, an antagonist, a fixator, or a synergist, depending on the movement to be accomplished. Muscles can even contract paradoxically, for example, when the biceps brachii, a flexor of the elbow joint, contracts and controls the rate of extension of the elbow when the triceps brachii contracts.
Nerve Supply of Skeletal Muscle The nerve trunk to a muscle is a mixed nerve, about 60% is motor and 40% is sensory, and it also contains some sympathetic autonomic fibers. The nerve enters the muscle at about the midpoint on its deep surface, often near the margin; the place of entrance is known as the motor point. This arrangement allows the muscle to move with minimum interference with the nerve trunk.
Lecture SevenHeart and Blood Vessels
1- Anatomy of the Heart
, The heart is located in the thoracic cavity between the lungs within the mediastinum. It is a hollow, cone-shaped, muscularorgan about the size of a closed – hand . Figure shows that the base (the widest part) of the heart is superior to its apex (the pointed tip), which rests on the diaphragm. Also, the base is directed toward the right shoulder, and the apex points to the left hip. The base is deep to the second rib, and the apex is at the level of the fifth intercostal space.
The human heart is an organ that pumps blood throughout the body via the circulatory system, supplying oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and removing carbon dioxide and other wastes. In humans, the heart is roughly the size of a closwd- hand and weighs between about 280 to 340 grams in men and 8 to 230 to 280 grams in women,
Facts about the human heart1- A human heart is roughly the size of a closed- hand.2- The heart weighs between about 280 to 340 grams in men and 230 to 280 grams in women.3- The heart beats about 100,000 times per day (about 3 billion beats in a lifetime).4- An adult heart beats about 60 to 80 times per minute.5- Newborns' hearts beat faster than adult hearts, about 70 to 190 beats per minute.6- The heart pumps about 6 quarts (5.7 liters) of blood throughout the body.7- The heart is located in the center of the chest, usually pointing slightly left.
Chambers of the HeartThe heart has four hollow chambers: two superior atria (sing., atrium) and two inferior ventricles (Fig. ). Each atrium has a wrinkled anterior pouch called an auricle. Internally, the atria are separated by the interatrial septum, and the ventricles are separated by the interventricular septum.
The heart has a left and a right side. The thickness of a chamber’s myocardium is suited to its function. The atria have thin walls, and they send blood into the adjacent ventricles. The ventricles are thicker, and they pump blood into blood vessels that travel to parts of the body. The left ventricle has a thicker wall than the right ventricle; the right ventricle pumps blood to the lungs, which are nearby. The left ventricle pumps blood to all the other parts of the body.
2- The Blood vessels are of three types:
1- arteries, 2- veins, and 3- capillaries,4- Sinusoid.
1- Arteries :Are blood vessels that transport blood from the heart and distribute it to the various tissues of the body by means of their branches (Fig. ) . The smallest arteries, <0.1 mm in diameter, are referred to as arterioles. The joining of branches of arteries is called an anastomosis. Arteries do not have valves.
2-Veins : are vessels that transport blood back to the heart; many of them possess valves. The smallest veins are called venules (Fig. ). The smaller veins, or tributaries, unite to form larger veins, which commonly join with one another to form venous plexuses. Medium-size deep arteries are often accompanied by two veins, one on each side, called venae comitantes. Veins leaving the gastrointestinal tract do not go directly to the heart but converge on the portal vein; this vein enters the liver and breaks up again into veins of diminishing size, which ultimately join capillary-like vessels, termed sinusoids, in the liver (Fig. ). A portal system is thus a system of vessels interposed between two capillary beds.
3-Capillaries :are microscopic vessels in the form of a network connecting the arterioles to the venules (Fig. ).
4-Sinusoids : resemble capillaries in that they are thin-walled blood vessels, but they have an irregular cross diameter and are wider than capillaries. They are found in the bone marrow, the spleen, the liver, and some endocrine glands. In some areas of the body, principally the tips of the fingers and toes, direct connections occur between the arteries and veins without the intervention of capillaries. The sites of such connections are referred to as arteriovenous anastomoses (Fig. ).
Arteriovenous Anastomosis (Shunt):Arteriovenous anastomosis (shunt) is the communication between an artery and a vein. It serves the function of phasic activity of the organ. When the organ is active these shunts are closed and the blood circulates through the capillaries. However, when the organ is at rest, the blood bypasses the capillary bed and is shunted back through the arteriovenous anastomosis. The shunt vessel may be straight or coiled, possesses a thick muscular coat, and is under the influence of sympathetic nervous system.
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