Romanpizza

RomanRomanArt &Art &

ArchitectureArchitecture

The Roman Empire

Roman Empire, c. 117Contemporary Europe

Roman Government• Monarchy: 753 BCE - 509 BCE• Republican Period: 509 BCE - 27 BCE• Imperial Period:

Early Empire: 27 BCE - 96 CEHigh Empire: 96 CE - 192 CELate Empire: 193 CE - 337 CE

• During the Monarchy, Rome was ruled by kings, the last of whom were of Etruscan heritage (the Tarquins), and an advisory body called the Senate. Society was divided into two classes: the patricians (wealthy, powerful), and the plebians.• During the Republican period, Rome was ruled by an oligarchy. • Augustus (aka Octavian, grand-nephew of Julius Caesar) assumed power in 27 BCE, and upon defeating Mark Antony and Cleopatra in Actium in 31 BCE, he became the first emperor of Rome.

Roman Government• The peace established by Augustus lasted (with only occasional internal conflict) for almost 200 years, and became known as the Pax Romana (Roman peace).• Most Roman emperors were a part of one of the various familial dynasties, however, during the height of the empire, it became customary to choose and “adopt” a non-familial heir to the throne, instead of giving it to the eldest son. • This custom was greatly successful, as it ensured that each successive ruler was competent and capable. • The five rulers highlighted in yellow are known as the “Five Great Emperors”

DYNASTIES NAMES DATESAugustus 27 BCE - 14 CE

Julio-Claudian TiberiusCaligulaClaudiusNero

14 - 37 CE37 - 4141 - 5454 - 68

Flavian VespasianTitusDomitian

69 -7979 - 8181 - 96

NervaTrajanHadrian

96 - 9898 - 117117 - 138

Antonine Antoninus PiusMarcus AureliusCommodus

138 - 161161 - 180180 - 192

Severan Septimius SeverusCaracallaSeverus Alexander

193 - 211211 - 217222 - 235

DiocletianConstantine I

284 – 305306 - 337

Roman Republic• In 211 BCE, a Roman general named Marcellus conquered the Sicilian Greek city of Syracuse. In addition to the usual spoils of war, he brought back to Rome examples of Greek art, sparking a craze for Greek art.• Over the next several hundred years, the Romans emulated Greek art and architecture, although Roman art still retained some of its Etruscan character.• In what ways did the Hellenistic style influenced the artworks to the right?

Head of a Roman PatricianFrom Otricoli, c. 80 BCE

Marble, 14” high

Man with Portrait Busts of his Ancestors

From Rome, c. 50 BCEMarble, 5’ 5” high

Roman Ancestor Portraits• When men of the patrician class died, their family would commission a death mask (usually made of wax, sometimes cast in plaster), to capture the likeness of the deceased. • During funerary processions, these masks were worn by the living, as a way of honoring and remembering the dead.• Those in the patrician class were fiercely proud of their lineage, as it underscored their secure place in the ruling class.• In addition to death masks, elderly patricians also had their likenesses carved in stone for posterity.• The busts had a high level of verism, or super-realism, to help remember the patrician forever, and to depict him as serious, experienced, and wise.• Romans believed only a bust (head, neck, perhaps shoulders) was necessary, whereas the Greeks believed the head and body were inseparable parts to the whole.


Marble, 14” high



Roman Funerary Traditions• The masks or busts were kept in the home in wooden chests, so that whenever a relative died, all of the previous ancestors would be paraded in the funeral procession.• Often, the cremated remains of each family member was kept in the household as well.• In Rome, wealthy families would share private group cemeteries. • When a group had used up the cemetery’s ground level, the tunneled underground to create a catacomb, which contained niches for urns and busts of the dead.• Above ground, the Romans built funeral basilicas where they held banquets to honor the dead.


Marble, 14” high



Concrete• Romans began to use concrete in the first century BCE. • They made concrete by mixing water, powdered lime, volcanic sand, and small rocks. The mixture hardened into a strong but rough-looking material.• Because concrete is not waterproof, and to hide its rough appearance, Romans would cover the outside of a concrete wall with a thin veneer of stucco or stone.• One advantage of using concrete was that the materials were much cheaper to obtain, and easier to transport.• Another advantage is that it strengthened architectural forms such as arches and vaults, which were otherwise precarious (because if one stone came loose, the entire arch or vault could collapse). This allowed the Romans to attempt much larger and more complex architecture.

Concrete techniques

Arch and Vault• The Romans made extensive use of the arch (in this case, a true arch instead of a corbel arch). Because of the wedge-shape of the stones, a true arch was much stronger and more stable than a corbel arch, especially when paired with concrete. • An arch that is extended to form a tunnel is called a barrel vault. • Two barrel vaults that cross at a 90 degree angle are called a groin vault.• Arches and vaults, even with the use of concrete, require buttressing – the reinforcement of the sides of the arch or vault to help bear the weight of the structure, and keep it from collapsing.

Roman arch

Corbel arch

Sanctuary of Fortuna• Influenced by Hellenistic architecture, specifically Pergamon.• Built of concrete covered with a veneer of stucco and finely cut limestone.• Worshippers ascended long ramps, then staircases, through seven successively higher levels.• The final level was an amphitheater-like semicircular staircase that lead up to a semicircular colonnaded pavilion. • Behind this pavilion was a small tholos – the actual temple to Fortuna, hiding the ancient rock-cut cave where acts of divination took place.• The temple is built on an axial plan. To what other temples is the layout of this temple similar?

Sanctuary of Fortuna PrimigeniaPalestrina, Italy c. 100 BCE

exedrae

arcade

Temple of Fortuna Virilis(Temple of Portunus)

From Rome, c. 100 BCE

Temple of Fortuna Virilis• Temple dedicated to Portunus, the Roman god of harbors. • Made of tufa (no concrete), then overlaid in stucco to resemble Greek marble.• What elements of this temple are Greek?• What elements of this temple are Etruscan?• What is the name for columns attached to a wall?• pseudoperipteral

Imperial Rome• After the murder of Julius Caesar in 44 BCE, there was a bloody civil war that ended when Octavian defeated Mark Antony and Cleopatra in 30 BCE. • In 27 BCE, the Senate conferred the majestic title of Augustus upon Octavian, raising him to the rank of emperor and officially beginning the Imperial era.• Augustus was both commander in chief and the chief priest of the state religion.• Augustus brought peace and prosperity to a war-weary state. In his own day, the peace was known as the Pax Augusta, but it continued after his death, for approximately two more centuries. It eventually became known as the Pax Romana.• During this time, the Romans built many public works: bridges, forums, temples, basilicas, theaters, amphitheaters, market halls, and baths, all of which were frequently decorated with images of the emperors as propaganda.

Portrait of Augustusas General

From Primaporta, Italyc. 20 BCE

Marble, 6’ 8” high

Imperial Rome• Because Augustus was only 32 when he finally defeated Mark Antony, the Republican tradition of depicting Roman rulers as aged and wise abruptly ended.• Instead, Augustus was shown as youthful, strong, and godlike, even as he advanced in age. • Because images of the emperor decorated many public buildings, the youthful, powerful, and godlike depiction of Augustus was specifically intended to shape public opinion (since most citizens in the empire never saw him in person).• This sculpture, although posed in an oratorical position like Aule Metele, is largely based on the proportions of Polykleitos’ Doryphoros.• The decorations on his cuirass depict the return of captured Roman military standards by the Parthians, a recent event.• The cupid by his feet reminds the viewer that Augustus’ family, the Julians, traced their ancestry back to Venus (meaning Augustus was of divine descent).

Portrait of Augustusas General



Ara Pacis Augustae• The Ara Pacis Augustae (Altar of Augustan Peace) is an altar dedicated by Augustus on the date of his wife’s (Livia) birthday in 9 BCE. • It commemorates Augustus’ triumphal return to Rome after establishing Roman rule in Gaul. • On the inner walls, garlands of flowers (which unrealistically include flowers from every season to show continuous peace) suspended in swags from ox skulls (representing sacrificial offerings) surround the altar. • In its original location, the Ara Pacis was aligned with a giant sundial that used an Egyptian obelisk as its pointer, suggesting that Augustus controlled not just Egypt but time itself. • On the fall equinox (the time of Augustus’ conception), the shadow of the obelisk pointed to the open door of the enclosure wall, on which sculptured panels depicted the first rulers of Rome (including Romulus).

Ara Pacis AugustaeFrom Primaporta, Italy

c. 10 BCEMarble, 6’ 8” high

pilaster (square column)

meander(pattern)

acanthus(symbols of prosperity)

Ara Pacis Augustae• The outer sides of the enclosure depict a procession that has just ended. The north side shows a line of senators, and the south side depicts a line of imperial family members.• Specific, identifiable individuals (including, among others, Augustus, his wife Livia, and his son and successor Tiberius) waiting for the next ceremonies to begin.• Unlike the ionic frieze of the Parthenon, this relief shows specific people during a specific event.• The sculptor has created the illusion of depth by carving the closer people in higher relief than the farther people. Also, the people farther away appear slightly lower than the people up close.• This is the first time children were included in a Greek or Roman monument. Augustus included them because there was a decline in the birthrate of the nobility, and he wanted to encourage marital fidelity and reproduction.

Imperial Procession(from the Ara Pacis Augustae)



Ara Pacis Augustae• The east and west faces both had pairs of complementary panels that represented war and peace.• The east face’s panels depicted personifications (symbols in human form) of war (Roma, the triumphant empire) and peace (Pax, the goddess of peace, or Tellus, mother earth).• Pax nurtures the Roman people (the babies in her arms).• The woman on the left is the personification of the land wind, symbolized by the swan, jug of water, and vegetation, and represented the fertility of Roman farms.• The woman on the right is the personification of the sea wind, symbolized by the sea monster and waves, and represented Rome’s dominion over the Mediterranean.• The influence of the Parthenon is evident in both the depiction of a procession, and the style of the figures. Augustus wanted to associate himself with the Golden Age of Greece.

Allegory of Peace(relief from the east side of the

Ara Pacis Augustae)From Primaporta, Italy

Maison Carrée• Maison Carrée (“Square House”) was very similar to the Temple of Fortuna Virilis, but was different in some ways.• In what ways are they similar?• In what ways are they different?• Nîmes was one of the wealthiest regions of the Roman empire. How are the architectural elements appropriate for such a wealthy place?

Maison CarréeNîmes, Francec. 10 CE

Temple of Fortuna Virilis(Temple of Portunus)

Pont du Gard• This structure served as both a bridge (on the lower level) and an aqueduct (on the upper level).• The aqueduct channel above the topmost and smallest arcade carried water (about 100 gallons a day) to Nîmes from a water source approximately 30 miles away.• The water was transported through the use of gravity only, so the entire length of the aqueduct had to slope gradually downhill the entire distance from water source to Nîmes.• The bottom arcade is thicker than the second arcade, to allow room for a road (approximately 20’ wide). The road is still open to pedestrians today.

Pont du GardNîmes, France

c. 16 BCE900’ long180’ high

Porta Maggiore• The Porta Maggiore was a gate located where two of Rome’s water lines as well as two intercity roads) converged.• The attic (uppermost story) bears a long description concealing the stacked conduits of both aqueducts.• This is a good example of the Roman “rusticated” masonry style, wherein not all the stones are precisely cut. Some stones are left rough, giving it a more rustic appearance and an interesting contrast in texture.

Porta MaggioreRome, Italy

c. 30 CE

Colosseum• The last Julian emperor was Nero. After spending an exorbitant amount of money on his own private palace in Rome (which was built on land seized from the public), he faced certain assassination and committed suicide.• After about a year of internal conflict, Vespasian Flavius (a previous general) became emperor. • Vespasian built the Colosseum on the land that had been the private lake on Nero’s palace, effectively returning the land to the public.• The Colosseum was the site of many matches of gladiators, animal hunts, and animal vs. animal fights.• Over the years, the marble veneers and seating have been pillaged.• Also visible now are the chambers below the arena floor, which housed animals and gladiators.

ColosseumRome, Italy

c. 80 CE160’ high

Colosseum• The structure of the Colosseum was divided into several levels, which provided seating to the spectators according to class affiliation.• 76 entryways provide room for 55,000 spectators.• The outer wall is made of travertine (a type of sedimentary limestone formed in mineral springs), and features a different type of column on each level.• The name Colosseum comes from the 120’ tall statue, the Colossus of Nero, which previously stood next to the entrance to Nero’s private palace.• The passageways, as well as the space beneath the seats, are made of barrel vaults and groin vaults.

ColosseumRome, Italy

c. 80 CE

Vespasian• Vespasian was an unpretentious career army officer who desired to distance himself from Nero’s extravagant misrule. • His portraits reflect his much simpler tastes.• He broke the tradition, started by Augustus, of the emperor being depicted as youthful and godly. Instead, he returned to the veristic style of the Republic.

Portrait of Vespasianc. 75 CE

Marble. 1’ 4”

Portrait of a Flavian Woman• It was common for the upper class to have portraits busts made of themselves, such as this image of a Flavian-era woman.• Her beauty is idealized, not by reference to images of Greek goddesses, but through fashion.• Her hair is done in the elaborate style of the latest court fashion, signaling her wealth and status.• Although not as free as women in the Etruscan era, Roman women were more free than Greek women had been. Upper class women were usually well-educated, and in some cases were physicians, shop-keepers, or overseers in construction.

Portrait Bust ofA Flavian Woman

Rome, Italy, c. 90 CEMarble. 2’ 1”.

Arch of Titus• Vespasian had two sons, Titus and Domitian. Titus succeeded Vespasian, and when Titus died only two years later, his brother Domitian took his place.• When Titus died in 81 CE, Domitian erected an arch in Titus’ honor on the Sacred Way leading into the Republican Forum Romanum.• This is an example of a triumphal arch, which were commonly used to commemorate military victories, specific people, and the building of roads and bridges.• As on the Colosseum, engaged columns frame the arcuated (arched) opening. The columns have composite capitals, combining Ionic volutes with Corinthian acanthus.• Reliefs of winged Victories decorate the spandrels.• The inscription states that the Senate erected the arch to honor the god Titus, son of the god Vespasian.• A relief under the vault depicts Titus ascending to heaven.

Arch of TitusRome, Italy

c. 80 CE, 50’ tall.Concrete and white marble

spandrel

Arch of Titus Reliefs• Inside the passageway of the vault are two great relief panels commemorating his triumphant return from the conquest of Judaea at the end of the Jewish wars in 70 CE.• One depicts the army returning with the spoils looted from the temple in Jerusalem, including a large menorah.• Overall carved in higher relief than the Ara Pacis, however, like the Ara Pacis, the closer figures are higher relief, and the further figures are lower relief (creating a strong sense of movement).• The other panel is more allegorical. Titus is shown riding in a chariot with Victory, who places a wreath on his head. The bare-chested youth below is probably Honor, and the horses are being lead by Valor.• The interaction of Titus with the gods shows his new deification.

Spoils of Jerusalem(relief from passage-

way panel inthe Arch of Titus)

Rome, Italyc. 81 CE. Marble.

7’ 10” high

Triumph of Titus(relief from passage-

way panel inthe Arch of Titus)

Rome, Italyc. 81 CE. Marble.

7’ 10” high

Markets of Trajan• The markets at Trajan’s Forum were located on the side of a hill, allowing for a 2 story structure (the upper story was recessed back, further up the hill).• The interior hallway was made up of a series of groin vaults, reinforced with concrete.• Each shop was located in a barrel vault, and was equipped with a wide doorway with a window above it.• The upper-level shops were lit by skylights.

Forum of TrajanApollodorus of Damascus

Rome, Italy112 CE

Trajan’s Market

Column of Trajan• The Column of Trajan consisted of a heroically nude statue of Trajan on top (replaced later with a statue of St. Peter), a large column decorated with a spiraling relief, and a pedestal (decorated with Dacian arms and armor) that also served as Trajan’s tomb.• The relief depicts a narrative of the Dacian wars in about 150 episodes (scenes), throughout which Trajan appears many times.• The band gets wider at the top (to make it easier to see from below), but the entire column is carved in only shallow relief, so as not to distort the overall contour of the column.• Only about 25% of the scenes depict battles. The rest of the space shows the soldiers doing other things such as building roads, bridges, and forts, gathering supplies, and making sacrifices to the gods.• As propaganda, this column always shows Trajan as a great leader who never lost a battle.

Column of TrajanApollodorus of Damascus

Rome, Italy. Marble.112 CE. 128’ tall.

The Roman Home• The homes of upper class Romans had multiple rooms, and a central atrium. Rainwater was funneled in through a hole in the roof in the atrium to collect in an indoor pool. • In addition to elaborate gardens, houses were decorated with mosaics and wall-paintings.• Many mosaics and wall-paintings have been excavated in Pompeii and other cities covered by ash from Mt. Vesuvius, which erupted in 79 CE.• Houses of the type shown to the right were more commonly available in the towns of the Roman empire. Most plebeians in Rome lived in multi-level apartment housing.

Mosaics• Mosaics were used to decorate floors and sometimes walls. • The designs were made of small pieces of stone or marble known as tesserae, which were attached to a panel called an emblemata using grout (a kind of cement).• The emblemata was constructed in an artists workshop, then transported to the home and installed.• Mosaics usually incorporated a realistic looking scene within a geometric patterned border.• In the comedic mosaic The Unswept Floor, the artist Herakleitos created the illusion of a variety of pieces of food and trash strewn across the dining room floor. • This artwork may have also displayed the wealth and conspicuous consumption of the owner of the home to his guests.

The Unswept FloorHerakleitos.

c. 100 CERome, Italy.

Wall Paintings• Pompeian wall-paintings were true (wet) frescoes.• First Style (200 – 80 BCE): Artists attempted to imitate, using stucco and plaster, the appearance of marble wall panels. Style borrowed from Hellenistic Greece.• Second Style (80 – 15 BCE): Artists attempted to dissolve the walls of a room by painting the illusion of an imaginary three-dimensional world. • Third Style (15 BCE – 50 CE): Artists rendered delicate linear architectural fantasies on dark backgrounds.• Fourth Style 50 CE – 79 CE): Walls with white background are painted with faux architectural elements. Some sections are window-like illusions that look out onto fragments of architecture.

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Hadrian• Hadrian was Trajan’s chosen successor. 41 at the time of his appointment, he is always shown as a mature man, but one that never ages (even though he ruled for 20 years).• Hadrian was a great admirer of the Greeks, and traveled widely during his tenure. Beards were a Greek affectation, and he brought them into style for the next 150 years.• One of Hadrian’s accomplishments was Hadrian’s wall, which bisected the island of Britain. • Because the wall was not large enough to hold out large armies, and it went through a relatively sparsely populated area, it is not believed that the wall’s main purpose was defense. • Instead, it was intended more as a way to establish checkpoints at the gates in the wall, where travelers could be inspected and taxes could be collected.

Portrait Bust of HadrianRome, Italy

c. 120 CEMarble. 1’ 5”

Hadrian’s Wall

The Pantheon• Hadrian’s greatest architectural accomplishment was the Pantheon in Rome, a temple dedicated to ALL the gods.• The unknown architect made masterful use of concrete as both a building material and means for shaping architectural space.• The front entryway was a traditional temple façade, similar to the Parthenon (but with Corinthian columns). • Behind the façade was a completely untraditional cylindrical building (drum) capped by a dome (142’ wide and tall)• The composition of the concrete varied: more basalt (a hard and durable material) towards the bottom, and more pumice (an extremely light stone) at the top.• The thickness of the dome wall reduces towards the top. The dome is also lightened by the use of coffers (sunken decorative panels), which reduce the weight and mass of the dome without damaging its structural integrity.

The PantheonRome, Italy

125 CE142’ tall

The Pantheon• The only light source is a single hole at the top, known as an oculus. On sunny days, a beam of light shines in through the oculus, and moves across the floor as the sun moves through the sky. Rain that falls in drains away by design.• The oculus reinforces the heavenly focus/theme of the building, and gives the viewer a feeling of apotheosis.• The marble paneling on the walls and floor are still intact.• First example of a large, uninterrupted (by columns) space, and of architects using architecture as a way to shape space itself.

The PantheonRome, Italy

125 CE142’ tall

Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius• Marcus Aurelius was an able leader and a successful military commander. • He was also proud of his intellectual achievements.• This statue shows both aspects (militaristic and philosophical) of his persona by combining the hairstyle and benevolent pose of a philosopher or orator, and the war steed of a military commander (a barbarian once cowered below the steeds front hoof).• Marcus Aurelius is shown with no armor or weapons. Like Egyptian kings, he rules effortlessly by the will of the gods.• Although equestrian statues of Roman emperors were common, few survive. This one is still intact because it was mistakenly believed to be a statue of Constantine, Rome’s first Christian emperor, and thus was not melted down during the Middle Ages.

Equestrian StatueOf Marcus AureliusRome, Italy.c. 175 CEGilded bronze11’ 6” high

Commodus as Hercules• Commodus succeeded his father Marcus Aurelius as emperor in 180 CE. • Unfortunately, Commodus lacked leadership and intellect, and spent money on frivolous pursuits.• This bust, although a technically masterful work by a highly skilled artist, reveals the pomposity and foolishness of Commodus, here pretentiously depicted as Hercules.• He was assassinated in 192 CE.• During the time of Marcus Aurelius, the Roman empire had already begun to fall into an economic downturn, with enemies testing their borders. The mismanagement of Commodus only exacerbated the problem.

Commodus as HerculesRome, Italyc. 191 CEMarble. 3’ 10”

The Severans• After Commodus’ assassination, a power struggle ensued. From this struggle, a new emperor named Septimus Severus rose to power. The Severan dynasty came to be known for its authoritarian rule.• In an attempt to legitimize his leadership, Septimus claimed to be Marcus Aurelius’ son, and is thus depicted with long, curling Antonine-esque hair. • This tondo (circular painting) was made of the royal family, possibly during a trip to Egypt. It depicts Septimus, his wife, and two sons (Caracalla and Geta). • The emphasis of the painting is on the symbols of power (large crowns, jewels, powerful/straightforward gaze), not on realistic likenesses or the emotional/psychological state of the subjects.• Upon their father’s death, Caracalla and Geta became co-emperors, but Caracalla murdered his brother, and ordered the erasure of any images of him.

Septimus Severus,

Julia Domna,& their Children

Fayum, Egyptc. 200 CE. 14”.

Tempera on wood.

Caracalla• Caracalla ruled with an iron-fist. • His portraits depict him as ruthless, no-nonsense, and powerful. His hair, while still curly, no longer has the long curls of the Antonines.• His head is shown turning sharply to the side, which may have been intended to show energy, but it also appears as though he is suspicious and fears danger creeping up from behind.• Caracalla was assassinated in the sixth year of his rule, a fate that befell many emperors in the third century. • For the next half century, the Roman military seized control, putting in place puppet emperors from their own lower ranks who were frequently assassinated shortly thereafter.

Portrait Busts Of CaracallaRome, Italy

c. 215 CE. Marble. 1’ 10” (right)14.5” (top)

The Baths of Caracalla• Septimus Severus, before his death, began the construction of a public bath, which was finished and dedicated by Caracalla. • Roman baths were recreational and educational centers, not just places to wash. The Severans built them to curry public favor.• Featured a series of pools of different temperatures. The warm and hot pools were heated by a system of burning coal and wood underneath the ground. Water was from a dedicated aqueduct.• In addition to the three baths (frigidarium, tempidarium, and caldarium), there was a swimming pool (natatio), two colonnaded exercise courts/gymnasiums, libraries, gardens, and lecture halls.

Baths of CaracallaRome, Italy

c. 212 CEBrick and concrete

covered with a veneer of marble and mosaic.

FarneseHercules

Ludovisi Sarcophagus• By the third century, burial had become more popular than cremation, and the production of sarcophagi boomed.• Th Ludovisi Sarcophagus (named after a man who owned the object much later) depicts a battle between Romans and barbarians. • The Romans are depicted with either short hair or helmets and armor. The barbarians are depicted with long, messy hair.• The Romans, mostly at the top, beat down the barbarians below in a military victory. The Roman leader (top center) gestures victoriously.• The artist has made no attempt to depict realistic space.• Similar in style to reliefs at Pergamon.Ludovisi Battle Sarcophagus

Rome, Italyc. 260 CE

Marble. 5’ tall

Portrait of the Four Tetrarchs• After over half a century of turmoil, a new ruler named Diocletian emerged in 284 CE.• He divided the empire into two halves. He would rule the east, and Maximian would rule the west (both would have the title Augustus).• In 293, Diocletian devised a tetrarchy (rule by four), wherein each of the two Augusti would appoint a subordinate and heir, who held the title of Caesar.• This sculpture depicts the tetrarchy (the two figures with beards were probably the Augusti). The figures look almost identical, wear armor and swords, and embrace in a show of unified cooperation.• Made of porphyry, a type of reddish-purple igneous (volcanic) rock containing crystals (such as quartz) from Egypt that was reserved for imperial use.• The hardness of the stone (difficult to carve) may have been the reason for the simplified, geometric forms.

Portrait of the Four TetrarchsConstantinople(modern-day

Istanbul, Turkey)c. 300 CE

Porphyry. 4’ 3”

Present location(moved by Christians): Cathedral of

St. Mark, Venice

Aula Palatina• The tetrarchs ruled from several cities, including Milan (Italy), Trier (Germany), Thessaloniki (Macedonia), and Nicomedia (Asia Minor).• In Trier, Constantius Chlorus (Augustus 293-306) and his son Constantine fortified the city with walls and a monumental gate. • They also built public amenities such as baths and a palace with a huge basilica-like audience hall, known as the Aula Palatina.• The windows in the apse are slightly smaller and higher in the wall, creating the illusion of greater distance to the end of the building.• Originally, the Augustus would be enthroned in the apse.• The austere design of this building inspired the design of early Christian churches.

Aula PalatinaTrier, Germany

c. 400 CEBrick (originally

with stucco outsideand marble inside)

190’L x 95’W x 100’H

Nave

Apse

Constantine’s Rise to Power• The transference of power in the tetrarchy did not happen as Diocletian hoped. When he abdicated his throne (retired), civil war broke out anew. • Constantine, son of Diocletian’s western Caesar Constantius Chlorus, emerged victorious when in 312 CE, he invaded Rome and defeated his primary rival, Maxentius.• Constantine (the Great) attributed his success to the Christian god, and in 313 CE, he and Licinius (who ruled the eastern empire) issued the Edict of Milan, granting freedom to all religious groups (Constantine may have been influenced by his mother, a devout Christian).• In 324 CE, Constantine defeated Licinius, his last rival, and he ruled the total empire until his death in 337.• Although during his rule, Constantine remained the head priest of the Roman religion, and reaffirmed his devotion to the Roman gods Mithras and Sol, he was baptized on his deathbed and is considered the first Christian Roman ruler.

Colossal HeadOf Constantine


Marble. 8’ 6”

Arch of ConstantineRome, Italy

c. 315 CEAppx. 67’ tall

Brickwork with marble veneer

Arch of Constantine• In Rome, next to the Colosseum, the Senate erected a memorial to Constantine’s victory over Maxentius, a huge triple arch much larger than the Arch of Titus (17’ taller). • Some of the decorations on the arch were taken from old monuments dedicated to the Good Emperors Trajan, Hadrian, and Marcus Aurelius. This visually transferred the old Roman virtues of strength, courage, and piety associated with these earlier emperors to Constantine.• The new reliefs made for the arch recount the story of his victory and symbolize his power and generosity.• The roundels pictured at right are from previous monuments, whereas the frieze below was made specifically for the arch.• The other architectural elements (columns, etc.) were taken from previous monuments.

roundel

Distribution of Largesse(detail from the Arch of Constantine)

Rome, Italy. c. 315 CE

Arch of Constantine• This frieze is one made specifically for the Arch of Constantine. It depicts Constantine (center) distributing wealth and goods to grateful citizens on either side. Constantine is frontal and elevated upon a throne, demonstrating his important status.• The figures of the people are squat and do not move with naturalistic grace. Instead, their pose is repetitive and mechanical.• The Arch constitutes a transitional period in art by including both Classically styled reliefs from the past, but also more stylized figures that illustrate status and hierarchy instead of visual reality.• The transition of style into a more stylized, hierarchical order that emphasized authority, ritual, and symbolic meaning continued into the Middle Ages.

Basilica Nova• Before being overthrown by Constantine, Maxentius began a new basilica called the Basilica Nova, which Constantine later finished.• Instead of a columnar hall (as was used in previous basilicas), Maxentius ordered a large, unbroken space supported by a series of groin vaults (as was used in baths)• The central hall was supported by groin vaults, with smaller barrel vaults in the sides acting as buttresses. The upper portion of the groin vaults acted as a clerestory.

Basilica NovaRome, Italyc. 313 CEBrick and concrete300’L x 215’W x 114H

Basilica NovaRome, Italyc. 313 CEBrick and concrete300’L x 215’W x 114H

• When he came to power, Constantine put his own stamp on the building by adding a new apse and entrance on the long sides of the building, effectively changing the axis of the building from the long axis to the short axis.

Colossal Statue of Constantine• Placed in the original apse of the Basilica Nova• Marble head, chest, arms, and legs held up on a wooden frame, covered in bronze drapery. • The whole figure assembled was 30’ tall.• The statue acted as a permanent stand-in for the emperor, representing him whenever the conduct or business legally required his presence.• The sculpture combines features of traditional Roman portraiture with the some of the abstraction evident in the sculpture of the four Tetrarchs.• Propagandistic • Although he continued to rule Rome, Constantine established a “new Rome” at Byzantium (modern Istanbul, Turkey) and named it Constantinople in 330.• The old cults of Roman gods quickly died out after Constantine’s death, marking the end of Roman antiquity.

Colossal Statueof Constantine


Marble. Head 8’ 6”

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