Unit I/Basic Computer Engineering Truba College of Science & Technology, Bhopal

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1. Definition

A computer generally means a programmable machine. The two principal characteristics of

a computer are: it responds to a specific set of instructions in a well-defined manner and it

can execute a pre recorded list of instructions (a program).

Fig 1.1 Modern Computer

Modern computers are electronic and digital. The actual machinery — wires, transistors,

and circuits — is called hardware; the instructions and data are called software.

1.1 Basic Computer Operation

Input accepts data and instructions through the input devices such as keyboard,

mouse, scanner, microphone, joystick etc.

Process and Control performs the actions per the instruction issued and process the

given input data. The processing may include ALU operations. It also controls the

overall operations like ALU operations inside the computer.

Storage stores the data and the instructions for future execution.

Output generates the desired output after executing the instructions and the

processing the input data.

1.2 History of Computer

First Generation (1940-1956) Vacuum Tubes

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The first computers used vacuum tubes for circuitry and magnetic drums for memory, and

were often enormous, taking up entire rooms. They were very expensive to operate and in

addition to using a great deal of electricity, generated a lot of heat, which was often the

cause of malfunctions.

First generation computers relied on machine language, the lowest-level programming

language understood by computers, to perform operations, and they could only solve one

problem at a time. Input was based on punched cards and paper tape, and output was

displayed on printouts.

The UNIVAC and ENIAC computers are examples of first-generation computing devices. The

UNIVAC was the first commercial computer delivered to a business client, the U.S. Census

Bureau in 1951.

Fig 1.2 A UNIVAC computer at the Census Bureau.

Second Generation (1956-1963) Transistors

Transistors replaced vacuum tubes and ushered in the second generation of computers. The

transistor was invented in 1947 but did not see widespread use in computers until the late

1950s. The transistor was far superior to the vacuum tube, allowing computers to become

smaller, faster, cheaper, more energy-efficient and more reliable than their first-generation

predecessors. Though the transistor still generated a great deal of heat that subjected the

computer to damage, it was a vast improvement over the vacuum tube. Second-generation

computers still relied on punched cards for input and printouts for output.

Second-generation computers moved from cryptic binary machine language to symbolic,

or assembly, languages, which allowed programmers to specify instructions in words. High-

level programming languages were also being developed at this time, such as early versions

of COBOL and FORTRAN. These were also the first computers that stored their instructions

in their memory, which moved from a magnetic drum to magnetic core technology.

The first computers of this generation were developed for the atomic energy industry.

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Third Generation (1964-1971) Integrated Circuits

The development of the integrated circuit was the hallmark of the third generation of

computers. Transistors were miniaturized and placed on silicon chips,

called semiconductors, which drastically increased the speed and efficiency of computers.

Instead of punched cards and printouts, users interacted with third generation computers

through keyboards and monitors and interfaced with an operating system, which allowed

the device to run many different applications at one time with a central program that

monitored the memory. Computers for the first time became accessible to a mass audience

because they were smaller and cheaper than their predecessors.

Fourth Generation (1971-Present) Microprocessors

The microprocessor brought the fourth generation of computers, as thousands of integrated

circuits were built onto a single silicon chip. What in the first generation filled an entire

room could now fit in the palm of the hand. The Intel 4004 chip, developed in 1971, located

all the components of the computer—from the central processing unit and memory to

input/output controls—on a single chip.

In 1981 IBM introduced its first computer for the home user, and in 1984 Apple introduced

the Macintosh. Microprocessors also moved out of the realm of desktop computers and into

many areas of life as more and more everyday products began to use microprocessors.

As these small computers became more powerful, they could be linked together to form

networks, which eventually led to the development of the Internet. Fourth generation

computers also saw the development of GUIs, the mouse and handheld devices.

Fifth Generation (Present and Beyond) Artificial Intelligence

Fifth generation computing devices, based on artificial intelligence, are still in development,

though there are some applications, such as voice recognition, that are being used today.

The use of parallel processing and superconductors is helping to make artificial intelligence a

reality. Quantum computation and molecular and nanotechnology will radically change the

face of computers in years to come. The goal of fifth-generation computing is to develop

devices that respond to natural language input and are capable of learning and self-

organization

1.3 Hardware components of a computer system:

1. The CPU (Central Processing Unit) - this carries out all the instructions the computer

has to do. It is made up of:

a. A control unit which controls each of the steps the CPU makes as it works.

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b. An ALU (Arithmetic and Logic Unit) which carries out the step-by-step

calculations and processing.

2. Main/internal memory - RAM (Random Access Memory) is used to store the

operating system, software and files data used while the computer is

running. ROM (Read Only Memory) is used to store the software used to start the

hardware and load the operating system software into RAM.

3. Input devices - these allow the input of data into the computer (i.e a keyboard or

mouse).

4. Output devices - these allow the output of information from the computer (i.e. a

monitor or printer) .

5. Secondary/Backing Storage - these store data when the computer is turned off (i.e.

a hard disk).

Fig. 1.3 Hardware Components of a computer systems

1.4 Information in Bytes

Bit - A bit is a value of either a 1 or 0 (on or off).

Nibble - A Nibble is 4 bits.

Byte- A Byte is 8 bits.

Kilobyte (KB) - A Kilobyte is 1,024 bytes.

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Megabyte (MB) - A Megabyte is 1,048,576 bytes or 1,024 Kilobytes

873 pages of plaintext (1,200 characters)

4 books (200 pages or 240,000 characters)

Gigabyte (GB)- A Gigabyte is 1,073,741,824 (230) bytes. 1,024 Megabytes, or 1,048,576

Kilobytes.

894,784 pages of plaintext (1,200 characters)

4,473 books (200 pages or 240,000 characters)

640 web pages (with 1.6MB average file size)

341 digital pictures (with 3MB average file size)

256 MP3 audio files (with 4MB average file size)

1 650MB CD

Terabyte (TB)-A Terabyte is 1,099,511,627,776 (240) bytes, 1,024 Gigabytes, or 1,048,576

Megabytes.

916,259,689 pages of plaintext (1,200 characters)

4,581,298 books (200 pages or 240,000 characters)

655,360 web pages (with 1.6MB average file size)

349,525 digital pictures (with 3MB average file size)

262,144 MP3 audio files (with 4MB average file size)

1,613 650MB CD's

233 4.38GB DVD's

40 25GB Blu-ray discs

Petabyte (PB)-A Petabyte is 1,125,899,906,842,624 (250) bytes, 1,024 Terabytes, 1,048,576

Gigabytes, or 1,073,741,824 Megabytes.

938,249,922,368 pages of plaintext (1,200 characters)

4,691,249,611 books (200 pages or 240,000 characters)

671,088,640 web pages (with 1.6MB average file size)

357,913,941 digital pictures (with 3MB average file size)

268,435,456 MP3 audio files (with 4MB average file size)

1,651,910 650MB CD's

239,400 4.38GB DVD's

41,943 25GB Blu-ray discs

Exabyte (EB)-An Exabyte is 1,152,921,504,606,846,976 (260) bytes, 1,024 Petabytes,

1,048,576 Terabytes, 1,073,741,824 Gigabytes, or 1,099,511,627,776 Megabytes.

960,767,920,505,705 pages of plaintext (1,200 characters)

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4,803,839,602,528 books (200 pages or 240,000 characters)

687,194,767,360 web pages (with 1.6MB average file size)

366,503,875,925 digital pictures (with 3MB average file size)

274,877,906,944 MP3 audio files (with 4MB average file size)

1,691,556,350 650MB CD's

245,146,535 4.38GB DVD's

42,949,672 25GB Blu-ray discs

Zettabyte (ZB)-A Zettabyte is 1,180,591,620,717,411,303,424 (270) bytes, 1,024 Exabytes,

1,048,576 Petabytes, 1,073,741,824 Terabytes, 1,099,511,627,776 Gigabytes, or

1,125,899,910,000,000 Megabytes.

983,826,350,597,842,752 pages of plaintext (1,200 characters)

4,919,131,752,989,213 books (200 pages or 240,000 characters)

703,687,443,750,000 web pages (with 1.6MB average file size)

375,299,970,000,000 digital pictures (with 3MB average file size)

281,474,977,500,000 MP3 audio files (with 4MB average file size)

1,732,153,707,691 650MB CD's

251,030,052,003 4.38GB DVD's

43,980,465,111 25GB Blu-ray discs

Yottabyte (YB)-A Yottabyte is 1,208,925,819,614,629,174,706,176 (280) bytes, 1,024

Zettabytes, 1,048,576 Exabytes, 1,073,741,824 Petabytes, 1,099,511,627,776 Terabytes,

1,125,899,910,000,000 Gigabytes, or 1,152,921,500,000,000,000 Megabytes.

1,007,438,183,012,190,978,921 pages of plaintext (1,200 characters)

5,037,190,915,060,954,894 books (200 pages or 240,000 characters)

720,575,937,500,000,000 web pages (with 1.6MB average file size)

384,307,166,666,666,666 digital pictures (with 3MB average file size)

288,230,375,000,000,000 MP3 audio files (with 4MB average file size)

1,773,725,384,615,384 650MB CD's

257,054,773,251,740 4.38GB DVD's

45,035,996,273,704 25GB Blu-ray discs

2. Classification of Computer

On the basis functionality

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Analog Computer - An analog computer (spelt analogue in British English) is a form of

computer that uses continuous physical phenomena such as electrical, mechanical, or

hydraulic quantities to model the problem being solved.

Digital Computer - A computer that performs calculations and logical operations with

quantities represented as digits, usually in the binary number system

Hybrid Computer (Analog + Digital)- A combination of computers those are capable of

inputting and outputting in both digital and analog signals. A hybrid computer system setup

offers a cost effective method of performing complex simulations.

On the basis of Size

Super Computer - The fastest and most powerful type of computer Supercomputers are

very expensive and are employed for specialized applications that require immense

amounts of mathematical calculations. For example, weather forecasting requires a

supercomputer. Other uses of supercomputers include animated graphics, fluid dynamic

calculations, nuclear energy research, and petroleum exploration.

The chief difference between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer

channels all its power into executing a few programs as fast as possible, whereas a

mainframe uses its power to execute many programs concurrently.

Mainframe Computer - A very large and expensive computer capable of supporting

hundreds, or even thousands, of users simultaneously. In the hierarchy that starts with a

simple microprocessor (in watches, for example) at the bottom and moves to

supercomputers at the top, mainframes are just below supercomputers. In some ways,

mainframes are more powerful than supercomputers because they support more

simultaneous programs. But supercomputers can execute a single program faster than a

mainframe.

Mini Computer - A midsized computer. In size and power, minicomputers lie

between workstations and mainframes. In the past decade, the distinction between large

minicomputers and small mainframes has blurred, however, as has the distinction between

small minicomputers and workstations. But in general, a minicomputer is a multiprocessing

system capable of supporting from 4 to about 200 users simultaneously.

Micro Computer or Personal Computer

o Desktop Computer: a personal or micro-mini computer sufficient to fit on a desk.

o Laptop Computer: a portable computer complete with an integrated screen and

keyboard. It is generally smaller in size than a desktop computer and larger than

a notebook computer.

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o Palmtop Computer/Digital Diary /Notebook /PDAs: a hand-sized computer. Palmtops

have no keyboard but the screen serves both as an input and output device.

Workstations - A terminal or desktop computer in a network. In this context,

workstation is just a generic term for a user's machine (client machine) in contrast to a

"server" or "mainframe."

3. Organizations

3.1 Central Processing Unit

Alternatively referred to as the brain of the computer, processor, central processor,

or microprocessor, the CPU (pronounced as C-P-U) was first developed at Intel with the help

of Ted Hoff in the early 1970's and is short for Central Processing Unit. The computer CPU is

responsible for handling all instructions it receives from hardware and software running on

the computer.

Fig. 1.4 Intel Pentium processor

As can be seen by the above picture, the CPU chip is usually in the shape of a square or

rectangle and has one notched corner to help place the chip into the computer properly. On

the bottom of the chip are hundreds of connector pins that plug into each of the

corresponding holes on the socket. Today, most CPU's resemble the picture shown above;

however, Intel and AMD have also experimented with slot processors that were much larger

and slid into a slot on the motherboard. Also, over the years there have been dozens of

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different types of sockets on motherboards, each socket only supports so many different

processors, and each has its own pin layout.

In the CPU, the primary components are the ALU (Arithmetic Logic Unit) that performs

mathematical, logical, and decision operations and the CU (Control Unit) that directs all of

the processors operations. Over the history of computer processors, the speed (clock speed)

and capabilities of the processor have dramatically improved. For example, the first

microprocessor was the Intel 4004 that was released November 15, 1971 and had

2,300transistors and performed 60,000 operations per second. The Intel Pentium Processor

shown on this page has 3,300,000 transistors and performs around 188,000,000 instructions

per second.

3.2 Bus Architecture

A bus, in computing, is a set of physical connections (cables, printed circuits, etc.) which can

be shared by multiple hardware components in order to communicate with one another.

The purpose of buses is to reduce the number of "pathways" needed for communication

between the components, by carrying out all communications over a single data channel.

This is why the metaphor of a "data highway" is sometimes used.

Fig 1.5 Example of Bus

If only two hardware components communicate over the line, it is called a hardware

port (such as a serial port or parallel port).

Characteristics

A bus is characterised by the amount of information that can be transmitted at once. This

amount, expressed in bits, corresponds to the number of physical lines over which data is

sent simultaneously. A 32-wire ribbon cable can transmit 32 bits in parallel. The term

"width" is used to refer to the number of bits that a bus can transmit at once.

Additionally, the bus speed is also defined by its frequency (expressed in Hertz), the number

of data packets sent or received per second. Each time that data is sent or received is called

a cycle.

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This way, it is possible to find the maximum transfer speed of the bus, the amount of data

which it can transport per unit of time, by multiplying its width by its frequency. A bus with

a width of 16 bits and a frequency of 133 MHz, therefore, has a transfer speed equal to:

16 * 133.106 = 2128*106 bit/s,

or 2128*106/8 = 266*106 bytes/s

or 266*106 /1000 = 266*103 KB/s

or 259.7*103 /1000 = 266 MB/s

Architecture

In reality, each bus is generally constituted of 50 to 100 distinct physical lines, divided into

three subassemblies:

The address bus (sometimes called the memory bus) transports memory addresses

which the processor wants to access in order to read or write data. It is a

unidirectional bus.

The data bus transfers instructions coming from or going to the processor. It is a

bidirectional bus.

The control bus (or command bus) transports orders and synchronisation signals

coming from the control unit and travelling to all other hardware components. It is a

bidirectional bus, as it also transmits response signals from the hardware.

Primary Buses

There are generally two buses within a computer:

the internal bus (sometimes called the front-side bus, or FSB for short). The internal

bus allows the processor to communicate with the system's central memory

(the RAM).

the expansion bus (sometimes called the input/output bus) allows various

motherboard components (USB, serial, and parallel ports, cards inserted in

PCI connectors, hard drives, CD-ROM and CD-RW drives, etc.) to communicate with

one another. However, it is mainly used to add new devices using what are

called expansion slots connected to the input/output bus.

Chip Set

A chipset is the component which routes data between the computer's buses, so that all the

components which make up the computer can communicate with each other.

The chipset originally was made up of a large number of electronic chips, hence the name. It

generally has two components:

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The NorthBridge (also called the memory controller) is in charge of controlling

transfers between the processor and the RAM, which is way it is located physically

near the processor. It is sometimes called the GMCH, for Graphic and Memory

Controller Hub.

The SouthBridge (also called the input/output controller or expansion controller)

handles communications between peripheral devices. It is also called the ICH (I/O

Controller Hub). The tem bridge is generally used to designate a component which

connects two buses.

Fig 1.6 How Buses are connected

3.3 Instruction Set

CPU processes instructions and data. It receives orders from the software. The CPU is fed a

gentle stream of binary data via the RAM.

These instructions can also be called program code. They include the commands which you

constantly – via user programs – send to your PC using your keyboard and mouse.

Commands to print, save, open, etc.

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Data is typically user data. Think about that email users are writing. The actual contents (the

text, the letters) are user data. But when you and your software say “send”, users are

sending program code (instructions) to the processor:

Fig. 1.7. The instructions process the user data.

3.4 Memory and Storage Device

Memory identifies data storage that comes in the form of chips, and the word storage is

used for memory that exists on tapes or disks. Moreover, the term memory is usually

used as shorthand for physical memory, which refers to the actual chips capable of

holding data. Some computers also use virtual memory, which expands physical memory

onto a hard disk.

Every computer comes with a certain amount of physical memory, usually referred to

as main memory or RAM. You can think of main memory as an array of boxes, each of

which can hold a single byte of information. A computer that has 1 megabyte of

memory, therefore, can hold about 1 million bytes (or characters) of information.

There are several different types of memory:

RAM (random-access memory): This is the same as main memory. When used

by itself, the term RAM refers to read and write memory; that is, you can

both write data into RAM and read data from RAM. This is in contrast to ROM,

which permits you only to read data. Most RAM is volatile, which means that it

requires a steady flow of electricity to maintain its contents. As soon as the

power is turned off, whatever data was in RAM is lost. It also two types:-

Static random access memory (SRAM) It is a volatile memory based on

traditional transistors using flip-flop gates to hold data as long as the

power is on. It is very fast; therefore , they are used in cache memory.

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Fig 1.8 Example of SRAM

Dyanmic random access memory (DRAM) It is a volatile memory based on

the capacitors that holds data as long as power on. Due to discharging

capacitors, the DRAM is refreshed periodically.

Fig 1.9 Example of DRAM

ROM (read-only memory): Computers almost always contain a small amount of read-

only memory that holds instructions for starting up the computer. Unlike RAM, ROM

cannot be written to.

PROM (programmable read-only memory): A PROM is a memory chip on

which you can store a program. But once the PROM has been used, you

cannot wipe it clean and use it to store something else. Like ROMs, PROMs

are non-volatile.

EPROM (erasable programmable read-only memory): An EPROM is a special

type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to ultraviolet light.

EEPROM (electrically erasable programmable read-only memory):An

EEPROM is a special type of PROM that can be erased by exposing it to an

electrical charge.

Secondary memory (or secondary storage) is the slowest and cheapest form of memory.

It cannot be processed directly by the CPU. It must first be copied into primary storage

(also known as RAM ). Secondary memory devices include magnetic disks like hard

drives and floppy ; optical disks such as CDs and CDROMs ; and magnetic tapes, which

were the first forms of secondary memory.

Fig. 1.10 Hierarchical of Memory

Memory

Primary Memory

RAM

ROM

Secondary Memory

CD, DVD, Hard Disk etc

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Storage Systems

A device capable of storing data. The term usually refers to mass storage devices, such as

disk and tape drives. In modern day computers, storage devices can be found in many

forms. Storage devices can be classified based on many criterions.

he following list gives a few classifications of memory devices.

Primary and Secondary and Tertiary Storage

Volatile and non-volatile storage

Read only and Writable storage

Random Access and Sequential Access storage

Magnetic storage

Optical storage

Semiconductor storage

3.5 Input and Output devices

An input device is a hardware or peripheral device used to send data to a computer. An

input device allows users to communicate and feed instructions and data to computers for

processing, display, storage and/or transmission.

Examples of input devices include:

Keyboards: Allow users to input data

Pointing devices and game controllers: Allow users to direct application software

and devices used to capture audio and video, like cameras and microphones.

Input also may come from other computers via input/output (I/O) devices, like network

adapters and Bluetooth ports.

An output device is any device used to send data from a computer to another device or

user. Most computer data output that is meant for humans is in the form of audio or video.

Thus, most output devices used by humans are in these categories. Examples include

monitors, projectors, speakers, headphones and printers.

3.6 Software and its types

Software is a collection of computer programs and related data that provides the

instructions for telling a computer what to do and how to do it. Software refers to one or

more computer programs and data held in the storage of the computer for some purposes.

In other words, software is a set of programs, procedures, algorithms and its

documentation concerned with the operation of a data processing system. Program

software performs the function of the program it implements, either by directly

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providing instructions to the computer hardware or by serving as input to another piece of

software.

The term was coined to contrast to the old term hardware (meaning physical devices). In

contrast to hardware, software "cannot be touched"

System software is defined as the computer programs that give the instruction to the

hardware to perform the task they are designed for. They are pre-installed now days with

the computer system. It provides the basic functions for computer usage and helps run the

computer hardware and system. It includes a combination of the following:

o Device drivers

o Operating systems

o Servers

o Utilities

o Window systems

System software is responsible for managing a variety of independent hardware

components, so that they can work together harmoniously. Its purpose is to unburden

the application software programmer from the often complex details of the particular

computer being used, including such accessories as communications devices, printers,

device readers, displays and keyboards, and also to partition the computer's resources such

as memory and processor time in a safe and stable manner.

Programming software

Programming software usually provides tools to assist a programmer in writing computer

programs, and software using different programming languages in a more convenient way.

The tools include:

Compilers

Debuggers

Interpreters

Linkers

Text editors

An Integrated development environment (IDE) is a single application that attempts to

manage all these functions.

Application software

Application software is developed to perform in any task those benefits from computation.

It is a set of programs that allows the computer to perform a specific data processing job for

the user. It is a broad category, and encompasses software of many kinds, including

the internet browser being used to display this page. This category includes:

o Business software

o Computer-aided design

o Databases

o Decision-making software

o Educational software

o Image editing

o Industrial automation

o Mathematical software

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o Medical software

o Molecular modeling software

o Simulation software

o Spreadsheets

o Telecommunications

o Video editing software

o Video games

o Word processing

4. Computer Application in e-business

E-Business Applications

Electronic business is any information system or application that empowers

business processes. Today this is mostly done with web technologies.

E-business includes:

Applications can be divided into three categories:

1) Internal business systems:

Customer relationship management

Enterprise resource planning

Employee information portals

Knowledge management

Workflow management

Document management system s

Human resource management

Process control

Internal transaction processing

2) Enterprise communication and collaboration:

E-mail

Voice mail

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Discussion forums

Chat systems

Data conferencing

Collaborative work systems

3) Electronic commerce:

( Business-to-business electronic commerce or business-to-consumer electronic

commerce )

Electronic funds transfer

Supply chain management

E-marketing

Online transaction processing

5 Bio-Informatics

Bioinformatics derives knowledge from computer analysis of biological data. These can

consist of the information stored in the genetic code, but also experimental results from

various sources, patient statistics, and scientific literature. Research in bioinformatics

includes method development for storage, retrieval, and analysis of the data. Bioinformatics

is a rapidly developing branch of biology and is highly interdisciplinary, using techniques and

concepts from informatics, statistics, mathematics, chemistry, biochemistry, physics, and

linguistics. It has many practical applications in different areas of biology and medicine.

Computers + Biology = Bioinformatics

Computers play many roles in modern biology:

Collecting and processing signals detected by laboratory equipment: DNA sequences,

CCD devices, spectrophotometers, and just about any other device that can be

connected to a computer via an analog to digital converter.

Tracking samples and managing experiments in industrial-style laboratories (e.g., in

gene sequencing centers). Most smaller labs don't have the resources to invest in

automated laboratory management, but using software to manually maintain lab-

notebook-style electronic records is rapidly becoming more common.

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Storing data in public databases, and more importantly, public access to the

database via sophisticated Web searches and deposition mechanisms. NCBI, home of

Genbank, PubMed, and other public databases, is the premier example of the kind of

information services that can be built onto a public biological database.

Extracting patterns and rules from large data collections and using these observed

patterns to characterize and predict features in new data. This is the core of

bioinformatics: developing tools which can recognize pattern matches and feature

signatures within an otherwise inscrutable data set.

Annotation: using automatic computational methods to assign functional meaning to

uncharacterized data and to create informative links between different data

collections. For example, many annotation systems use automated sequence

comparison searches to identify potential genes in new genome data.

Simulation: using known information about a system, along with a mathematical or

physicochemical model, to simulate properties of the system. This category is

incredibly diverse, from simulating the motions of interacting protein molecules to

modelling the flow of chemicals through biochemical pathways.

5. Healthcare

Incredible advances have been made in health care in the last few decades. Many of these

have relied upon computer technology or were brought about by applying computer science

capabilities to medical problems. Mapping the human genome was only possible because of

algorithms developed by computer scientists. Image processing and pattern recognition

technology now commonly evaluate radiology scans, and electronic medical records and

physician ordering systems are now coming on-line, reducing medical errors and improving

the quality of care. Microscopic surgery is done using robots, improving the precision of the

procedure and thus improving the outcomes and reducing recovery time. On-line

diagnostics systems help physicians isolate the possible causes for a patient's symptoms and

propose treatment plans.

For example, information retrieval and data mining should provide improved methods for

early detection of disease outbreaks and unsuspected drug reactions. Personalized medicine

will provide treatment plans, not based on statistical outcomes for large populations, but on

the individual's DNA. Telemedicine will support medical examinations in remote areas of the

world and provide up to date diagnostic support. Computer assistive devices will allow the

disabled or elderly to lead fuller, more independent lives.

6. Remote Sensing and GIS

A geographic information system (GIS) is a computer-based tool for mapping and analyzing feature events on earth. GIS technology integrates common database operations, such as

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query and statistical analysis, with maps. GIS manages location-based information and provides tools for display and analysis of various statistics, including population characteristics, economic development opportunities, and vegetation types. GIS allows you

to link databases and maps to create dynamic displays. Additionally, it provides tools to visualize, query, and overlay those databases in ways not possible with traditional

spreadsheets. These abilities distinguish GIS from other information systems, and make it valuable to a wide range of public and private enterprises for explaining events, predicting

outcomes, and planning strategies.

Remote sensing is the art and science of making measurements of the earth using sensors on airplanes or satellites. These sensors collect data in the form of images and provide

specialized capabilities for manipulating, analyzing, and visualizing those images. Remote sensed imagery is integrated within a GIS.

7. Metrology and Climatology

Meteorology is the science of weather. It is essentially an inter-disciplinary science because the atmosphere, land and ocean constitute an integrated system. The three basic aspects of meteorology are observation, understanding and prediction of weather. There are many

kinds of routine meteorological observations. Some of them are made with simple instruments like the thermometer for measuring temperature or the anemometer for

recording wind speed. The observing techniques have become increasingly complex in recent years and satellites have now made it possible to monitor the weather globally.

Countries around the world exchange the weather observations through fast telecommunications channels. These are plotted on weather charts and analysed by

professional meteorologists at forecasting centres. Weather forecasts are then made with the help of modern computers and supercomputers. Weather information and forecasts are

of vital importance to many activities like agriculture, aviation, shipping, fisheries, tourism, defence, industrial projects, water management and disaster mitigation. Recent advances in

satellite and computer technology have led to significant progress in meteorology.

Climatology is a study of the climate of a place or region on the basis of weather records

accumulated over long periods of time. The average values of meteorological parameters derived from a data base that extends over several decades are called climatologically normal. Different regions of the world have different characteristic climates. However, it is now recognized that climate is not static and issues such as climate change and global

warming are receiving increasing attention.

8. Computer Game

A computer game is a computer-controlled game where players interact with objects

displayed on a screen for the sake of entertainment. A video game is essentially the same form of entertainment, but refers not only to games played on a personal computer, but

also to games run by a console or arcade machine. The term "computer game" also includes games which display only text or which use other

methods, such as sound or vibration, as their primary feedback device, or a controller (console games), or a combination of any of the above.

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Types of Computer Game

Action and skills games

Sports games Combat games Platform games

Labyrinth games Interactive moviews

Strategy and role games

Adventure games Role playing games (single user or small groups)

Neverwinter Nights

Roguelike games MMORPGs

War games Strategy and construction games

Simulations

Hybrid play

Real time strategy games Real time adventure and role playing games with combat

9. Multimedia and Animation

Multimedia uses computers to present text, audio, video, animation, interactive features, and still images in various ways and combinations made possible through the advancement of technology. By combining media and content, those interested in multimedia can take on

and work with a variety of media forms to get their content across. This is an exciting new field for those interested in computers, technology, and creative career options. Multimedia

can be accessed through computers or electronic devices and integrates the various forms together. One example of multimedia would be combining a website with video, audio, or

text images.

Animation is the process of displaying still images in a rapid sequence to create the illusion of movement. These images can be hand drawn, computer generated, or pictures of 3D

objects. Though most people associate animation with cartoons, it also has applications in industrial and scientific research. Regardless of the type, the viewer's body plays a main role

in why people see continuous movement instead of a series of quickly changing images.

Types

There are three main types of animation: traditional, stop motion, and computer generated. Each can be used to make both 2D or 3D images. There are also other less common forms,

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many of which focus on using an unusual medium like sand or glass to create the images, as well as combinations of live action and drawings or computer created images.

Traditional

Traditional animation involves drawing every frame of a film by hand. After all the drawings are completed and colour, they can be photographed or scanned into a computer and then

combined with sound on film. The process is extremely time-consuming, since it requires the creation of around 24 drawings per second of film. It's also labour-intensive, which is why most traditionally animated films are produced by large companies.

Operating System

Definition

An Operating System is a computer program that manages the resources of a computer. It accepts keyboard or mouse inputs from users and displays the results of the actions and

allows the user to run applications, or communicate with other computers via networked connections. Operating System is directly interact with hardware component and create an

interface between user and application software. (shown in fig. 1.11)

Fig 1.11 Operating System

Functions of Operating System

1. Process Management:- Process is a program in execution. Multiprogramming

systems explicitly allow multiple processes to exist at any given time, where only one is using the CPU at any given moment, while the remaining processes are performing

I/O or are waiting.

The process manager is of the four major parts of the operating system. It implements the process abstraction. It does this by creating a model for the way the process uses CPU and

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any system resources. Much of the complexity of the operating system stems from the need for multiple processes to share the hardware at the same time. As a consequence of this goal, the process manager implements CPU sharing ( called scheduling ),

process synchronization mechanisms, and a deadlock strategy. In addition, the process manager implements part of the operating system's protection and security.

Process states and transitions

Fig. 1.12 Process diagram

The above diagram contains a great deal of information.

Consider a running process P that issues an I/O request o The process blocks

o At some later point, a disk interrupt occurs and the driver detects that P's request is satisfied.

o P is unblocked, i.e. is moved from blocked to ready o At some later time the operating system looks for a ready job to run and

picks P. A preemptive scheduler has the dotted line preempt;

A non-preemptive scheduler doesn't. The number of processes changes only for two arcs: create and terminate.

Suspend and resume are medium term scheduling o Done on a longer time scale.

o Involves memory management as well. o Sometimes called two level scheduling.

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Process Control Block (PCB)

If the OS supports multiprogramming, then it needs to keep track of all the processes. For each process, its process control block PCB is used to track the process's execution status, including the following:

Fig. 1.13 Process states

Its current processor register contents

Its processor state (if it is blocked or ready) Its memory state

A pointer to its stack Which resources have been allocated to it

Which resources it needs

2.Memory management:- is the act of managing computer memory. The essential requirement of memory management is to provide ways to dynamically allocate portions of memory to programs at their request, and freeing it for reuse when no longer needed. This is critical to the computer system.

Several methods have been devised that increase the effectiveness of memory

management. Virtual memory systems separate the memory addresses used by a process from actual physical addresses, allowing separation of processes and increasing the

effectively available amount of RAM using paging or swapping to secondary storage. The quality of the virtual memory manager can have a big impact on overall system performance.

3.File Management:- A file is a collection of related information defined by its creator. Commonly, files represent programs (both source and object forms) and data. Data files may be numeric, alphabetic or alphanumeric. Files may be free-form, such as text files, or

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may be rigidly formatted. In general, a file is a sequence of bits, bytes, lines or records whose meaning is defined by its creator and user.

File management is one of the most visible services of an operating system. Computers can store information in several different physical forms among which magnetic tape, disk, and

drum are the most common forms. Each of these devices has their own characteristics and physical organization.

Normally files are organized into directories to ease their use. When multiple users have access to files, it may be desirable to control by whom and in what ways files may be accessed. The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with file management:

4. Device management:- Activating and controlling the peripheral devices in a computer. The operating system is generally responsible for device management, which is embodied in the device drivers. Sometimes, device management routines are run without an OS, such as in small embedded systems, or outside of the OS as in early DOS systems.

Configuring multiple devices within an organization such as desktop PCs, laptops and

mobile devices.

5. Security Management is a broad field of management related to asset management, physical security and human resource safety functions. It entails the

identification of an organization's information assets and the development, documentation and implementation of policies, standards, procedures and guidelines.

Types of Operating System

Types of Operating System

1. Batch Processing Operating System:- In a batch processing operating system interaction

between the user and processor is limited or there is no interaction at all during the execution of work. Data and programs that need to be processed are bundled and collected

as a ‘batch’ and executed together.

Batch processing operating systems are ideal in situations where:

- There are large amounts of data to be processed.

- Similar data needs to be processed.

- Similar processing is involved when executing the data.

The system is capable of identifying times when the processor is idle at which time ‘batches’ maybe processed. Processing is all performed automatically without any user intervention.

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2. Real-time Operating System:- A real-time operating system processes inputs simultaneously, fast enough to affect the next input or process. Real-time systems are usually used to control complex systems that require a lot of processing like machinery

and industrial systems. 3. Single User Operating System:- A single user OS as the name suggests is designed for one

user to effectively use a computer at a time. 4. Multi-Tasking Operating System:- In this type of OS several applications maybe

simultaneously loaded and used in the memory. While the processor handles only one application at a particular time it is capable of switching between the applications

effectively to apparently simultaneously execute each application. This type of operating system is seen everywhere today and is the most common type of OS, the Windows

operating system would be an example. 5. Multi-User Operating System:- This type of OS allows multiple users to simultaneously

use the system, while here as well, the processor splits its resources and handles one user at a time, the speed and efficiency at which it does this makes it apparent that

users are simultaneously using the system, some network systems utilize this kind of operating system.

6. Embedded Operating System:- Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate with a limited number of resources. They are very compact and extremely efficient by design. Windows CE and Minix 3 are some examples of embedded operating systems.

INTRODUCTION: - Word Processor is a Software package that enables you to create, edit, print and save documents for future retrieval and reference. Creating a document involves typing by using a keyboard and saving it. Editing a document involves correcting the spelling mistakes, if any, deleting or moving words sentences or paragraphs.

(a) Advantages of Word Processing:- One of the main advantages of a word processor

over a conventional typewriter is that a word processor enables you to make changes to a document without retyping the entire document.

(b) Features of Word Processing:- Most Word Processor available today allows more

than just creating and editing documents. They have wide range of other tools and functions, which are used in formatting the documents. The following are the main

features of a Word Processor

i. Text is typing into the computer, which allows alterations to be made easily. ii. Words and sentences can be inserted, amended or deleted.

iii. Paragraphs or text can be copied /moved throughout the document.

iv. Margins and page length can be adjusted as desired. v. Spelling can be checked and modified through the spell check facility.

vi. Multiple document/files can be merged. vii. Multiple copies of letters can be generated with different addresses through the

mail-merge facility.

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(c) Some Common Word Processing Packages:- The followings are examples of some popular word processor available

Soft word WordStar

Word perfect Microsoft word

1. IMPORTANT FEATURES OF MS-WORD:- Ms-Word not only supports word processing features but also DTP features. Some of the important features of Ms-Word are listed below:

i. Using word you can create the document and edit them later, as and when required, by adding more text, modifying the existing text, deleting/moving some part of it.

ii. Changing the size of the margins can reformat complete document or part of text.

iii. Font size and type of fonts can also be changed. Page numbers and Header and Footer can be included.

iv. Spelling can be checked and correction can be made automatically in the entire

document. Word count and other statistics can be generated.

v. Text can be formatted in columnar style as we see in the newspaper. Text boxes can be made.

vi. Tables can be made and included in the text.

vii. Word also allows the user to mix the graphical pictures with the text. Graphical

pictures can either be created in word itself or can be imported from outside like from Clip Art Gallery.

viii. Word also provides the mail-merge facility.

ix. Word also has the facility of macros. Macros can be either attached to some function/special keys or to a tool bar or to a menu.

x. It also provides online help of any option.

2. GETTING STARTED WITH MS-WORD:- While working in MS-WORD you have to work with a mouse. Also one can work, to some extent, through the keyboard. The use of

mouse is simpler as it is fully menu driven. In MS-WORD every command is available in the form of ‘icons’.

You can go inside MS-WORD by the following way

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1. Take the mouse pointer to START button on the task bar. Click the left mouse button. The monitor will show like as follows:

Fig. 1.14

2. Move the pointer to programs. You will notice another menu coming up to the right. 3. In that menu identify where Microsoft word is placed. Move the cursor horizontally

to come out of programs. 4. Move into the rectangular area meant for Microsoft word. Click the left mouse

button there. The computer will start MS-WORD. You will find the screen as follows.

Fig. 1.15

a. Title Bar :- The title bar displays the name of the currently active word document. Like other WINDOWS applications, it can be used to alter the size and location of the word window.

b. Tool Bars :- Word has a number of tool bars that help you perform task faster and with great ease. Two of the most commonly tool bars are the formatting tool bar and the standard tool bar. These two toolbars are displayed just below the title bar. At any point of time any tool bar can be made ON or OFF through the tool bar option of

View Menu.

(c) Ruler Bar:- The Ruler Bar allows you to format the vertical alignment of text in a document.

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(d) Status Bar:- The Status Bar displays information about the currently active document. This includes the page number that you are working, the column and line number of the cursor position and so on.

(e) Scroll Bar:- The Scroll Bar helps you scroll the content or body of document. You can

do so by moving the elevator button along the scroll bar, or by click in on the buttons with the arrow marked on them to move up and down and left and right of a page.

(f) Workspace :- The Workspace is the area in the document window was you enter/type the text of your document.

(g) Main Menu:- The Word main menu is displayed at the top of the screen as shown in the Fig. 1.14 The main menu further displays a sub menu. Some of the options are highlighted options and some of them appear as faded options. At any time, only highlighted options can be executed, faded options are not applicable. Infect if the option is faded you will not be able to choose it. You may not that any option faded under present situation may become highlighted under different situations.

3. MAIN MENU OPTIONS:- The overall functions of all the items of main menu are

explained below.

(a) File:- You can perform file management operations by using these options such as opening, closing, saving, printing, exiting etc. It displays the following sub menu.

Fig 1.16 File Sub menu

(b) Edit:- Using this option you can perform editing functions such as cut, copy, paste,

find and replace etc. It displays the following sub menu.

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Fig. 1.17 Edit Sub menu

(c) View:- Word document can be of many pages. The different pages may have different modes. Each mode has its limitations. For example in normal mode the graphical picture cannot be displayed. They can only be displayed in page layout mode. Using the option "View" you can switch over from one mode to other. It displays the following Sub menu.

Fig. 1.18 View Sub menu

(d) Insert:- Using this menu, you can insert various objects such as page numbers,

footnotes, picture frames etc. in your document. It displays the following Sub menu.

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Fig. 9.6 Insert Submenu

(e) Format:- Using this menu, you can perform various type of formatting operations, such as fonts can be changed, borders can be framed etc. It displays the following Sub menu.

Fig. 1.19 Format Submenu

(f) Tools:- Using this menu, you can have access to various utilities/tools of Word, such as spell check, macros, mail merge etc. It displays the following Sub menu.

Fig. 1.20

(g) Table:- This menu deals with tables. Using this menu you can perform various types of operations on the table. It displays the following Sub menu.

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(h) Window:- This menu allows you to work with two documents simultaneously. This would require two windows to be opened so that each one can hold one document. Using this menu, you can switch over from one window to another. It displays the

following Sub menu

.

(i) Help:- Using this menu, you can get on-line help for any function.

Fig. 1.21

CONCLUSION:- At the end of this lesson you have learnt the important features of Ms-

Word. We started with procedure to invoke Ms-Word.

Microsoft Excel basics- Knowledge of how to navigate in a Windows is helpful. To begin, open Microsoft Excel in the programs setting of your Start Menu. The screen shown here will

appear

.

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Title Bar

The Title bar is located at the very top of the screen. On the Title bar, Microsoft Excel

displays the name of the workbook you are currently using. At the top of your screen, you should see Microsoft Excel - Book1

Menu Bar

The Menu bar is directly below the Title bar. Point with your mouse to a menu option and

click the left mouse button. A drop-down menu will appear. To select an option, highlight

the item on the drop-down menu and press Enter. An ellipse after a menu item signifies additional options.

Tool Bar

The Standard Toolbar

The Formatting Toolbar

Toolbars provide shortcuts to menu commands. Toolbars are located just below the Menu

bar.

Worksheets

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Microsoft Excel consists of worksheets. Each worksheet contains columns and rows. The columns are lettered A to IV; the rows are numbered 1 to 65536. The combination of column

and row coordinates make up a cell address. For example, the cell located in the upper left corner of the worksheet is cell A1, meaning column A, row 1. Cell E10 is located under

column E on row 10. You enter your data into the cells on the worksheet.

Formula Bar

If the Formula bar displays the Cell address on the left Cell Entries display on the right side of the Formula bar.

Status Bar

The Status bar appears at the very bottom of the screen. .

The word Ready tells you that Excel is in the Ready mode and awaiting your next command.

Other indicators appear on the Status bar in the lower right corner of the screen. Here are some examples:

The letters NUM on the Status bar in the lower right corner of the screen indicate that the

numeric keypad is on. The Num Lock key is a toggle key. Pressing it turns the numeric

keypad on and off. You can use the numeric keypad to enter numbers as if you were using a calculator.

Arrow Keys

Down Arrow Key

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Use the down arrow key to move downward on the screen one cell at a time.

Up Arrow Key

Use the Up Arrow key to move upward on the screen one cell at a time.

Right and Left Arrow Keys

Use the right and left arrow keys to move right or left one cell at a time.

Page Up and Page Down

Page Up and Page Down keys move the cursor up and down one page at a time.

End Key

The Status Bar

End key, used in conjunction with the arrow keys, causes the cursor to move to the far end of

the spreadsheet in the direction of the arrow.

Home Key

Home key, used in conjunction with the End key, moves you to to the beginning of the data area if you have entered data or cell A1.

Scroll Lock

Scroll Lock moves the window, but not the cell pointer.

Selecting Cells

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If you wish to perform a function on a group of cells, you must first select those cells by highlighting them. To highlight cells A1 to E1.Place the cursor in cell A1.Press the F8 key.

This anchors the cursor. Note that EXT appears on the Status bar in the lower right corner of the screen. You are in the Extend mode. Click in cell E7. Cells A1 to E7 should now be

highlighted. Press Esc and click anywhere on the worksheet to clear the highlighting.

Closing Microsoft Excel

Close Microsoft Excel.

Click on File, which is located on the Menu bar. Press the down arrow key until Exit is highlighted. Press Enter. Click on No, if you are prompted, "Do you want to save the

changes you made to Book1?"

INTRODUCTION:- To launch Microsoft PowerPoint, click Start -> (All) Programs ->

Microsoft Office -> Microsoft Office PowerPoint 2003

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The Title Bar:- As a regular Windows application, Microsoft PowerPoint shares some

characteristics that are common to other programs. The top section of the interface is made of a wide bar called the title bar:

The left section of the title bar displays a small picture known as the system icon. This icon is

used to identify the application. The icon holds a list of actions you can perform to close, minimize, maximize, move or restore the application. To perform any of these actions, you

would click the system icon. This would display its list:

This list can also be referred to as the system menu. To use one of its items, you can click it. The main area of a title bar is a long bar actually referred to as the title bar. This section is

also used to perform the same operations available on the system menu. There are other

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operations you can perform different than the system menu depending on the way you click

the main area of the title bar.

The System Buttons:- The right section of the title bar displays three small squares referred to

as the system buttons. They are used to minimize, maximize, restore or close Microsoft PowerPoint. These items are

Button Role

Minimizes the window

Maximizes the window

Restores the window

Closes the window

The Main Menu:- Under the title bar, there is the main menu and sometimes called the Menu

Bar. To use a menu item, you click one of its words and the menu expands. If an item is missing from the main menu, you can customize it.

There are four main types of menus you will encounter:

When clicked, the behavior of a menu that stands alone depends on the

actions prior to clicking it. Under the File menu, an example is Exit

A menu that is disabled is not accessible at the moment. This kind of

menu depends on another action or the availability of something else. Here are examples:

A menu with three dots means that an intermediary action is required in order to apply its assignment. Usually, this menu would call a dialog box where

the user would have to make a decision.

A menu with an arrow holds a list of menu items under it. A menu under another menu is called a submenu. To use such a menu, you would position the mouse on it to display its submenu. Here is an example:

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On the main menu (and any menu), there is one letter underlined on each word. Examples are F in File, E in Edit, V in View, etc. The underlined letter is called an access key. The access

key allows you to access the same menu item using the keyboard. In order to use an access key, the menu should have focus first. The menu is given focus by pressing either the Alt or

the F10 keys. When the menu has focus and you want to dismiss it, you can press Esc.

On some menu items, there is a key or a combination of keys we call a shortcut. This key or

this combination allows you to perform the same action on that menu using the keyboard. If

the shortcut is made of one key only, you can just press it. If the shortcut is made of two keys, press and hold the first one, while you are holding the first, press the second key once and

release the first key. Some shortcuts are a combination of three keys.

From now on, in our lessons,

Press Means

T Press the T key

Alt, G Press and release Alt. Then press G

Ctrl + H Press and hold Ctrl. While you are still holding Ctrl, press H once.

Then release Ctrl

Ctrl + Shift + E Press and hold Ctrl. Then press and hold Shift. Then press E once. Release Ctrl and Shift

The Toolbars:- Under the menu bar, there is another bar made of various buttons. This is called a toolbar. There are various toolbars used in Microsoft PowerPoint. Each toolbar has a

proper name and we will learn how to recognize them.

At times, there will be many toolbars that come and go while you are using Microsoft

PowerPoint. For this reason, we will refer to each toolbar by its name. To know the name of a toolbar, you can right-click any word on the menu bar or any button on the toolbar. If you

have only one toolbar on your screen, its name will have a check box. The other name(s) on

the context menu is (are) the one (those) you can add to the screen if you wish:

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You could also create your own toolbar.

The Status Bar The status bar is a long horizontal bar that spans the whole bottom section of

Microsoft PowerPoint. It will be used to provide some assistance or information about an item that is displaying or being accessed in Microsoft Access.

Saving and Closing presentation:- You can save, close, and exit presentations in power point

just as you would while using other Microsoft Presentations.