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Water Quality 2010:Proceedings of the conference
23 – 24 June 2010Weetwood Hall Hotel, Leeds
Conference Proceedings
About water@leeds
water@leeds is the water research centre at the University of Leeds.Established in 2008, water@leeds provides research, training, education andconsultancy services across a range of water disciplines. Water Quality 2010 isthe first international conference organised by water@leeds.
The conference proceedings were prepared by water@leeds for theparticipants of Water Quality 2010. Water Quality 2010 is supported by theWorldwide Universities Network (WUN).
water@leeds will make this document available at this website (or by a link toa different site). Any changes to its contents will be clearly recorded, either bya note of corrigenda or the issue of a new edition, identified by an amendedreport reference number and date.
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Please cite as:
Water Quality 2010 (2010) Proceedings of the Water Quality 2010Conference, 23-24 June, Weetwood Hall Hotel, Leeds, UK. water@leeds,University of Leeds.Available at: http://www.wateratleeds.org/water-quality-2010.php
repared by Water Quality Secretariat (R. Slack & S. Bowman)
onference chairs: J. Holden, G. Czapar & Z. Zhang
water@leeds, 2010
ater@leedschool of Geographyniversity of LeedseedsS2 9JTK
ttp://www.wateratleeds.org/water-quality-2010.phpel: +44 (0) 113 343 3373ax: +44 (0) 113 343 3308mail: [email protected]
nline edition v.1
Contents
Page
Contents
Welcome 1
Programme 2
Biography of keynote speakers: 4
Presentations: 5
1. Management & Policy – Chair: Professor Joseph Holden 51.1 Integrated Water Demand Management: Innovative Approach Adopted by
Mercy Corps Organisation in Jordan – A. Assayed 51.2 An Assessment of Risks and Potential Measures for WFD Compliance in
Yorkshire’s Rivers – B. Crabtree 71.3 Water Policy in the UK: Impacts of Policy Development on Water Quality – J.
Marshall 111.4 Continental Scale Modelling of Water Quality in Rivers – R..Williams 13
2a. Treatment – Chair: Dr Miller Camargo-Valero 152.1 Improved Dye Adsorption for Water Treatment using the Arvia Process –
HMA Asghar 152.2 Using Intermittent Sand Filter for Grey Water Treatment: Case Studies in
Jordanian Rural Communities – A. Assayed 262.3 Application of Natural and Modified Materials for Treatment of Acid Mine
Drainage – AA. Bogush 282.4 Exploring the Potential of Agricultural Constructed Wetlands to Mitigate
Diffuse Pollution – C. Deasy 32
2b. Treatment – Chair: Dr Nigel Horan 362.5 Recovering Resources and Reducing the Carbon Footprint: a Better Way to
Deal with Wastewater Screenings – L.S. Cadavid 362.6 Natural Wastewater Treatment Systems for N Control and Recovery – M.
Camargo-Valero 38
3a. Monitoring, Ecosystems & Health – Chair: Dr Julian Dawson 393.1 Identification of Nitrate Sources in a Chalk Water Supply Catchment in
Yorkshire, UK – R. Grayson 393.2 Impacts of Artificial Drainage and Drain-blocking on Peatland Stream
Ecosystems – S. Ramchunder 403.3 Extraction and Analysis of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the
Mediterranean Lebanese Seawater – A. Kouzayha 41
3b. Monitoring, Ecosystems & Health – Chair: Dr Paul Kay 503.4 Impacts of Agricultural Stewardship on Water Quality in Upland Catchments
P. Kay 503.5 Real Decisions on Water Quality: Monitoring and Modelling to an Appropriate
Level – F. Elwell 513.6 Evaluation of THMs Concentration and Cancer Risk Assessment in Tehran’s
Drinking Water – A. Pardakhti 52
4. Treatment: Part 2 – Chair: Dr David Adams 58
4.1 The Use of Calligonium comosum Stems as a New Adsorbent Material for theRemoval of Toxic Cr(VI) Ions from Aqueous Media – M.A. Ackacha 58
4.2 Detection of Genes for Toxin Production in Cyanobacterial Strains Tested forSensitivity Towards Barley Straw Inhibition – J.Lalung 59
4.3 Biological Phosphorus Removal and Relevant Microorganism Charcteristicsof Sludge at Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants, China – H. Wang 61
4.4 Nano-zeolite Formation from Coal Fly Ash and its Potential for RecoveringNH4
+ and PO43- from Wastewater – X. Chen 62
5. Nutrients – Chair: Dr George Czapar 635.1 Long-term DOC Export from UK Peatlands – N.J.K. Howden 635.2 In-situ Measurement of Nutrient Dynamics and Cycling in Freshwaters - E.J.
Palmer-Felgate 655.3 Microcosmic Investigation on Characteristics and Mechanisms of Phosphorus
Cycling Between Water and Sediment Subjected to Warming – Z. Zhang 695.4 Are Climate Factors More Important than Nutrient Supply in Determining
River Phytoplankton Populations? – M.G. Hutchins 71
6. Tools – Chair: Dr Catherine Noakes 726.1 Catchment Monitoring Network Protects the Thames River – D. Hanson 726.2 Novel Combinations of Sensor Technology and Data Analysis for Safe
Drinking Water Production – M. Cauchi 736.3 What Can Complex Network Theory Tell Us About Water Quality in a
Distribution Network? D. Virden 75
7. Future Issues, New Initiatives – Chair: Dr James Marshall 787.1 Demonstration Test Catchments as a Means of Developing a Robust
Evidence Base for Catchment Management – B. Harris 787.2 How Effective is the Implementation of Controls on Diffuse Pollution Under
the Water Framework Directive in Scotland? Answers and Questions Fromthe Lunan Diffuse Pollution Monitored Catchment Project. – A. Vinten 80
7.3 Water Resource Planning and Climate Change Adaptation –A. Kemlo 84
8. Poster presentations 858.1 Bangladesh Water Problems and Probable Solutions – S. Akhter-Hamid 858.2 Variation and Transformation of Particulate Organic Carbon within the River
Dee Basin, NE Scotland – J.J.C. Dawson 878.3 Traditional vs. Molecular Methods for the Microbiological Analysis of Drinking
Water – A. Mohammad 898.4 Disinfection of E.coli Contaminated Waters Using Tungsten Trioxide-based
Photoelectrocatalysis – E.O. Scott-Emuakpor 918.5 Harvesting Rainwater Quality: a Case Study from Jordan – R.S. Shatnawi 948.6 Effects of Flow Conditions and System Geometry on Ammonium Removal
Rate and Ammonia Oxidisers Community Structure in Benthic Biofilms – K.Yanuka 103
8.7 Determining the Trophic Structure and Water Quality by PhytoplanktonComposition and Environmental Factors of Sazlidere Dam (Istanbul, Turkey)– a Drinking Water Source – N. Yilmaz 105
9. Workshop topics 106
10. Exhibitors at Water Quality 2010 107YSI 107RS Hydro 108
Delegate List 109
Conference Secretariat & Committee 111
Welcome note to WQ2010
On behalf of the Worldwide Universities Network (WUN) we are very pleased towelcome you to Water Quality 2010. Your hosts this year are water@leeds at theUniversity of Leeds who will be delighted to help you if you have any queries duringor after the event. water@leeds is part of the WUN Water Quality Network and wegratefully acknowledge WUN’s support in sponsoring this conference. We plan forthe conference to take place every two years at different venues as we move tobecome the pre-eminent international water quality conference.
The conference has been organised to allow maximum time for networking anddiscussion beyond the presentations, and we have included an afternoon ofworkshops to help delegates to identify international collaborators to further developtheir research interests. The conference starts with three keynote speakers from theUnited Kingdom, United States and China who will introduce the water quality issuesof concern in these countries. Following an initial plenary session concentrating onwater quality management, policy and research, the conference has adopted aparallel session approach to provide delegates with a variety of differentpresentations on a range of broad issues from water treatment, to understanding howwater quality impacts on the wider environment. Presentations on future issues andnovel tools lead into the workshop sessions.
Please use the collaboration form included in your delegate pack to feed informationback to the conference committee; this information will prove to be very useful duringthe workshop sessions on 24 June. So, if you are looking for collaborators in aparticular area of water quality or have an idea that you would like to explore furtherwithin this gathering of experts, please do use this form!
There are a number of opportunities for networking during the conference.Refreshment breaks will take place in the area outside the conference rooms whilelunch will be served in the hotel restaurant. The poster presentation session on 23June will be accompanied by a drinks reception and the conference dinner thatfollows will take place in Weetwood Hall’s Jacobean Room. Weetwood has a numberof amenities that you are free to make use of, including garden, bar and courtyardareas. Leeds city centre and the main university campus is short taxi ride away – theconference secretariat can help with any enquiries you may have about localattractions and facilities, from shopping to skiing!
With the goal of developing an international research community focused onidentifying, developing and delivering the best solutions to international water qualityproblems, we hope you will also consider joining the WUN Water Quality Network.Led by the Universities of Leeds, Illinois and Zhejiang, the Water Quality Networkseeks to develop cutting-edge research, training and education in water quality. Usethe collaboration forms to express your interest. We hope you enjoy the conferenceand look forward to welcoming you back in 2012!
water@leeds – water research at the University of Leeds
1
2
Programme
DAY 1
10:00 Welcome (Prof Joseph Holden)Room: Headingley Suite, Weetwood Hall Hotel, Leeds
10:05 Keynote 1 – Water quality in the UK (Prof Adrian McDonald)
10:25 Keynote 2 – Water quality in the US mid-West (Dr George Czapar)
10:45 Keynote 3 – Water quality in China (Dr Zhijian Zhang)
11:05 COFFEE
1. Management, policy and international modellingChair: Prof Joseph HoldenRoom: Headingley Suite
11:25 Integrated water demand management: innovative approach adopted by MercyCorps Organisation in Jordan [Assayed, A]
11:50 An assessment of risks and potential measures for WFD compliance in Yorkshire'srivers [Crabtree, B.]
12:15 Water policy in the UK - impacts of policy development on water quality[Marshall, J.]
12:40 Continental scale modelling of water quality in rivers [Williams, R.]
13:05 Further Questions/Discussion
13:10 LUNCH
2a. TreatmentChair: Dr Miller Camargo-ValeroRoom: Headingley 2
3a. Monitoring, ecosystem and healthChair: Dr Julian DawsonRoom: Headingley 1
14:10 Improved dye adsorption for watertreatment using the Arvia process[Asghar, HMA]
Identification of nitrate sources in a chalkwater supply catchment in Yorkshire, UK[Grayson, R.]
14:35 Using intermittent sand filter forgreywater treatment: case studies inJordanian rural communities[Assayed, A]
Impacts of artificial drainage and drain-blocking on peatland stream ecosystems[Ramchunder, S.]
15:00 Application of natural and modifiedmaterials for treatment of acid minedrainage [Bogush, AA]
Extraction and analysis of polycyclicaromatic hydrocarbons in theMediterranean Lebanese seawater[Kouzayha, A.]
15:25 Exploring the potential of agriculturalconstructed wetlands to mitigatediffuse pollution [Deasy, C.]
Further Questions/Discussion
15:50 Further Questions/Discussion
15:55 TEA
2b. TreatmentChair: Dr Nigel HoranRoom: Headingley 2
3b. Monitoring, ecosystem and healthChair: Dr Paul KayRoom: Headingley 1
16:15 General discussion Impacts of agricultural stewardship onwater quality in upland catchments[Kay, P.]
16:40 Recovering resources and reducingthe carbon footprint: a better way todeal with wastewater screenings[Cadavid, LS]
Real decisions on water quality: monitoringand modelling to an appropriate level[Elwell, F]
17:05 Natural wastewater treatment systemsfor N control and recovery[Camargo-Valero]
Evaluation of THMs concentration andcancer risk assessment in Tehran's drinkingwater [Pardakhti, A.]
17:30 Further Questions/Discussion Further Questions/Discussion
17:45 POSTER PRESENTATIONSChair: Dr Rebecca SlackRoom: Headingley Suite
19:30 DINNER
DAY 2
09:15 Welcome to Day 2 Welcome to Day 2
4. Treatment: Part 2Chair: Dr David AdamsRoom: Headingley 2
5. NutrientsChair: Dr George CzaparRoom: Headingley 1
09:20 The use of Calligonium comosum stemsas a new adsorbent material for theremoval of toxic Cr(VI) ions fromaqueous media [Ackacha, MA]
Long-term DOC export from UKpeatlands [Howden, NJK]
09:45 Detection of genes for toxin productionin cyanobacterial strains tested forsensitivity towards barley straw inhibition[Lalung, J.]
In-situ measurement of nutrient dynamicsand cycling in freshwaters[Palmer-Felgate, E.J.]
10:10 Biological phosphorus removal andrelevant microorganism charcteristics ofsludge at municipal wastewatertreatment plants, China [Wang, H.]
Microcosmic investigation oncharacteristics and mechanisms ofphosphorus cycling between water andsediment subjected to warming [Zhang,Zhijian]
10:35 Nano-zeolite formation from coal fly ashand its potential for recovering NH4 andPO4 from wastewater [Chen, Xiaoyan]
Are climate factors more important thannutrient supply in determining riverphytoplankton populations?[Hutchins, MG]
11:00 Further Questions/Discussion Further Questions/Discussion
11:05 COFFEE
6. ToolsChair: Dr Catherine NoakesRoom: Headingley 2
7. New initiatives, future issuesChair: Dr Jim MarshallRoom: Headingley 1
11:30 Catchment Monitoring Network Protectsthe Thames River [Hanson, D.]
Demonstration test catchments as ameans of developing a robust evidencebase for catchment management[Harris, B.]
11:55 Novel combinations of sensortechnology and data analysis for safedrinking water production [Cauchi, M.]
How effective is the implementation ofcontrols on diffuse pollution under theWater Framework Directive in Scotland?Answers and questions from the LunanDiffuse Pollution Monitored Catchmentproject. [Vinten, A]
12:20 What can complex network theory tellus about water quality in a distributionnetwork? [Virden, D.]
Water resource modelling and climatechange adaptation [Kemlo, A.]
12:45 Further Questions/Discussion Further Questions/Discussion
12:50 LUNCH
13:50 WorkshopGlobal water quality: the big issues in a changing environmentFacilitators: Dr Rebecca Slack and Dr George CzaparRoom: Headingley Suite
15:30 TEA
16:00 FINAL WORDRoom: Headingley Suite
16:30 CLOSE
Keynote biographies
Water Quality 2010 is pleased to welcome three international keynote speakers to thisconference. All of the keynotes are experienced researchers working in fields with aprimary research interest in water quality and offer different perspectives on this globalissue.
Prof Adrian McDonald's research interests focus on environmentalmanagement, with particular emphasis on the following fields:resource assessment, natural hazards, microbial dynamics, watercolour processes and control, catchment planning and risk,decision support systems, and water demand assessment.Previous research experience also includes diffuse pollutionassessment and forecasting, biofuel futures in the energyeconomy and alternative disputes resolution.
Professor Adrian McDonald
Dr George Czapar is the Water Quality Coordinator for Universityof Illinois Extension. He served as the leader of the StrategicResearch Initiative (SRI) in Water Quality for the Illinois Councilon Food and Agricultural Research (C-FAR). This collaborativeresearch project focused on developing nutrient standards forIllinois. Dr. Czapar also has an appointment as an AdjunctAssociate Professor in the Department of Crop Sciences, wherehe teaches and advises students in the Off-Campus GraduateStudies Program.
Professor of Environmental Management. University of Leeds
Dr George Czapar
Dr Zhijian Zhang has considerable research experience in waterquality issues, particularly the biogeochemistry of biogenicelements in wetland ecosystems and nutrient removal fromwastewater by biological and/or chemical innovation. With over40 publications, Dr Zhang had a particular interest in P, C and N-cycling in wetland systems and the use of nano-materials toimprove water quality and aid nutrient removal.
Adjunct Associate Professor. University of Illinois Extension
Dr Zhijian ZhangAssociate Professor, College of Environmental and Resources Sciences
Zhejiang University
5
1. Management & Policy
1.1 Integrated Water Demand Management: Innovative
Approach Adopted by the Mercy Corps Organisation
in Jordan
Shadi Bushnaq1, Rania Al-Zoubi1, Almoayied Assayed2 *
1Mercy Corps Organization, Jordan P.O. Box 830684, Amman 11183 Jordan
2University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH
* Corresponding author: Tel. 07879545917 (UK) Fax. 01483 686671
KEYWORDS: Water Demand Management, Community Based Organisation, Water
Harvesting Techniques, Revolving Loan Funds.
ABSTRACT
Water is a vital human need and a cornerstone for socioeconomic development. Yet,
millions of people around the world do not have access to clean and sufficient water.
Jordan is one of the poorest countries regarding water resources. The annual per
capita share of water for all uses is estimated at 160 m3 and is projected to decline to
only 91 m3 by the year 2025, putting Jordan in the category of having an absolute
water shortage.
In order to address the challenge of Jordan's limited water resources, the United
States Agency for International Development (USAID)-funded Mercy Corps will
implement the “Community Based Water Demand Management” Project. The project
has started in 2006 and will continue till 2011. This five-year project was designed to
enable communities in Jordan to improve water use efficiency through building the
local community-based organisations’ (CBOs) capacity to take the lead in promoting
and raising the awareness level of their constituents around Water Demand
Management (WDM).
Throughout the past three years of the project, 135 CBOs were each awarded grants
of $10,000. The selection process was done through a highly-competitive and
transparent approach and with the participation of relevant stakeholders. These
6
grants have been managed by the selected CBOs and operated as revolving loan
funds to support households and small farms to develop and implement water saving
and efficiency projects. The project started with building the leadership capacity of
the local CBOs in general project management and technical tools in formal training
settings. Management topics included proposal writing, project design and
implementation, feasibility studies and financial aspects of revolving loan funds.
Whereas, technical training covered the concept of water efficiency, water demand
management, water challenges in Jordan and a range of applied information on
rainwater harvesting (e.g. drinking water hygiene, maintenance, cost and size
calculations), drip irrigation, greywater treatment and residential network
maintenance. Additionally, CBOs have received on-the-job training through
continuous support, supervision and monitoring by project team members to ensure
smooth implementation.
Until June 2009, 2792 people received loans. Gender has been considered from the
early stages of project: among all the CBOs there were 25 CBOs having only women
members. Moreover, 20% of total loan recipients were women. The women
participated in many themes during the projects, i.e. decision making and capacity
building.
The types of projects funded were rainwater harvesting cisterns and reservoirs,
roman cistern rehabilitation, residential network maintenance, drip irrigation, small
agricultural canal maintenance, spring improvement, greywater treatment and other
small-scale, high impact water efficiency investments. During the first three years of
the project, the amount of rainwater harvested by on-site decentralised cisterns was
115,783 m3. However, in spite of the huge quantity of water saved through drip
irrigation and residential network maintenance, it was not calculated due to
interferences of many external factors which would cause bias calculations.
As a result, the project empowered CBOs to create and manage revolving loan funds
which have supported communities to adopt innovative water demand management
solutions. In addition, the project contributed to finding other water resources among
households which had significant impact on household economy and health.
Finally, the project adopted participatory approaches that allowed all stakeholders to
get involved in all stages. Technical and economic issues as well as social inclusion
were integrated in a sustainable manner that will pave the way towards a new
approach for water management at the local level which can be called “Integrated
Water Demand Management”.
7
1.2 An Assessment of Risks and Potential Measures
for WFD Compliance in Yorkshire’s Rivers
Bob Crabtree*, Gerard Morris**, and Ed Bramely***
* WRc plc, Frankland Road, Swindon, SN5 8YF, UK
Tel. 01793 865035; Fax 01793 865001
** Gerard Morris, Environment Agency, Leeds, LS1 19PG
*** Ed Bramley, Yorkshire Water Services Ltd., Bradford, BD6 2LZ
KEYWORDS: Phosphate, SIMCAT, Water Framework Directive, Water Quality
Modelling, Yorkshire
ABSTRACT
Complying with the Water Framework Directive – the WFD – (EC, 2002) water quality
standards for ‘good ecological status’ potentially requires a range of Programmes of
Measures (PoMs) to control point and diffuse sources of pollution. The WFD will drive
improvements in water bodies over the next twenty years. It is vital to understand the
implications of the WFD for long term environmental planning, including the options
for improvements to stakeholder assets and the degree to which the requirements of
the WFD can be met.
Water quality modelling can be used to understand where the greatest impact in a
catchment can be achieved through ‘end of pipe’ and diffuse source reductions. This
information can be used to target cost-effective investment by water companies,
industry and those with responsibilities for agriculture and urban diffuse inputs. In the
UK, river water quality modelling with the Environment Agency’s SIMCAT model
(Environment Agency, 2008) is regarded as the best current approach to support
decision making for river water quality planning. SIMCAT is a numerical model that
describes the quality of river water throughout a catchment by using a combined
Monte-Carlo and deterministic process simulation approach to predict the behaviour
of the summary statistics of flow and water quality, such as the mean and a range of
percentiles, at any point in a catchment. SIMCAT is a one dimensional, steady state
model that can represent inputs from both point-source discharges and diffuse inputs
and can represent the in-river decay of pollutants.
8
Under the WFD, phosphate standards do not contribute to ‘good chemical status’ but
phosphate is one of the Annex VIII substances for ‘good ecological status’. A recent
WFD SIMCAT pilot catchment study (Crabtree et al, 2009) indicated that the WFD
water quality standards (UKTAG, 2006) for phosphate pose a major challenge to
achieving compliance by measures to control both point source and urban and non
urban diffuse pollution. Also, it is not certain that such measures could deliver cost-
effective ecological benefits as an outcome.
SIMCAT water quality models for the main river catchments of the Yorkshire Region
in the North East of England - the Hull, Aire, Don, Ouse, Derwent and Esk were
developed jointly by the Environment Agency and Yorkshire Water between 2003
and 2008. The models, produced by WRc, cover over 3000km of river reaches
designated under the WFD and are based on routine river and effluent monitoring
data for a 5 year period to give consistency within the suite of models. In addition, all
models are fully developed and calibrated to the same Environment Agency technical
specification. The models are being used to support both individual catchment and
regional scale water quality modelling studies for the WFD. In part, these studies are
considering the relative impacts of point source and diffuse pollution across each
catchment and, therefore, the potential benefits and costs of measures to reduce
both pollution sources, as necessary, to achieve WFD requirements.
A focus for an initial regional study was to identify the water quality benefits and
improved compliance with WFD standards for the 488 water bodies in the region that
could, potentially, be produced by point source sewage treatment works (STW)
discharge controls alone. A range of SIMCAT modelling scenarios were assessed:
1. all STWs operating at current actual performance;;
2. all STWs operating at current discharge consent limits for flow and quality;
3. all STWs operating at future planned discharge consent limits for flow and
quality; and,
4. all STWs operating at current Environment Agency technology limits for
phosphate removal (annual average 1 mg/l for population equivalent (PE) >
1000; annual average 2 mg/l for PE <1000; no limit applied to PE <250).
The results for scenario 1 indicate that, currently, 54% of Yorkshire’s rivers comply
with the WFD phosphate standards. Figure 1 shows the model predicted compliance
with WFD phosphate standards at Environment Agency monitoring sites.
9
Figure 1. SIMCAT predicted current phosphate compliance at WFD water quality
monitoring sites in Yorkshire.
The scenario 1 results also demonstrate that effluent discharges are the largest
source of phosphate in the more urbanised Aire, Don and Hull catchments but diffuse
pollution is the largest source in the more rural Ouse, Derwent and Esk catchments.
However, at a regional scale, diffuse pollution is the largest source of phosphate,
BOD, ammonia and nitrate. Figure 2 illustrates the regional source apportionment
assessment for phosphate.
Figure 2. Phosphate source input to Yorkshire Rivers.
Scenarios 2 and 3 give similar results to scenario 1 as only a small reduction in
phosphate would be produced. The results from scenario 4 indicate that phosphate
removal at current technology limits applied to all 256 STWs with PE>250 would
STW Discharges
44%
Diffuse Sources
54%
Industrial
Discharges
2%
Current Actual
Total Load Input:
9,889 kg/day
10
produce a reduction of 67% of the current total STW input and 32% of the current
total river load. This would result in an additional 298 km of rivers meeting the WFD
phosphate standards. However, this would only produce a 10% increase over current
predicted compliance.
The modelling results show that achieving compliance with WFD water quality
standards in the Yorkshire region will be a major technical and financial challenge.
Achieving full compliance, if appropriate, will require targeted investment in future
measures to reduce both point source and diffuse pollution across all catchments.
REFERENCES
Crabtree, R., Kelly, S., Green, H., Squibbs, G. and Mitchel. (2009). A case study
apportioning loads and assessing environmental benefits of programmes of
measures. Wat. Sci. Tech. 59.3, 407-416.
Environment Agency (2008). SIMCAT10.84 – A Guide and Reference for Users.
EC (2002). Council Directive of 23 October 2002 establishing a Framework for
Community Action in the Field of Water Policy (2000/60/EEC). Official Journal of the
European Communities, No.
UKTAG (2006). UK Environmental Standards and Conditions (Phase 1). Final Report
(SR1 – 2006), UK Technical Advisory Group on the Water Framework Directive
(www.wfduk.org).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper has been produced with the permission of the Directors of WRc, the
Environment Agency, and Yorkshire Water Services. The views expressed in the
paper are those of the authors and not necessarily the views of these organisations.
11
1.3 Water Policy in the UK – impacts of policy
development on water quality
James Marshall
Executive Business Adviser, Water UK, 1 Queen Anne’s Gate, London SW1H 9BT
Tel: 0207 344 1824, Mob: 07920 752344, E-mail: [email protected]
KEYWORDS: water policy, UK, Europe, water companies
ABSTRACT
Drinking water quality in the UK is renowned for being one of the highest in Europe.
Each year over 99.95% of all samples taken in England and Wales comply with
national and European standards. To achieve this water companies have invested
heavily in water treatment and distribution technologies and upgrading networks.
2010 is an important year for water policy both in the UK and in Europe. Parliament is
currently (at the time of drafting the abstract) debating the Flood and Water
Management Bill which will address not just flooding issues but also legislation
around hosepipe bans and customer debt. Furthermore, towards the end of 2009
Defra received two strategic reports – the Cave report on competition and innovation
and the Walker report on charging and metering. If implemented in full these two
reports could instigate fundamental changes to the manner in which the UK water
industry is structured. In Europe the Drinking Water Directive is due for review and is
likely to formally introduce the concept of drinking water safety plans as well as
revise the parametric values of chemicals in drinking water. Coupled with this is a
new Biocide Regulation and associate procurement standards.
Water companies have recently commenced the 2010-2015 investment programme.
Infrastructure replacement rates are likely to be around 0.5% per annum, lower than
previous asset management plan (AMP) periods when significant water quality
undertakings drove investment. In England and Wales Ofwat have allowed for
around £1/3 billion investment in water treatment and a further £1/4 billion investment
in dealing with lead, colour, turbidity and iron.
This paper will consider whether 2010-15 will see the improvements in the quality of
our drinking water seen since 1990 continue or do we run a danger of becoming
bogged down in legislation, regulation and red tape?
12
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Future water and sewerage charges 2010-2015 Final Determinations, Ofwat. 2009.
Walker Review – Charging and metering for water services, Defra, 2009
(http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/quality/water/industry/walkerreview/final-
report.htm)
Cave Review – Competition and innovation in water markets, Defra, 2009
(http://www.defra.gov.uk/environment/quality/water/industry/cavereview/documents/c
avereview-finalreport.pdf)
13
1.4 Continental Scale Modell ing of Water Quality
in Rivers
Richard Williams*1, Anja Voss**, Virginie Keller*, Ilona Bärlund**,
Olli Malve† and Frank Voss**
* Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, UK ** CESR, Universität Kassel, Germany †
Finnish Environment Institute (SYKE)
1 Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, OX10 9AU, UK.
Telephone: +44 (0)1491 692398, Fax: +44 (0)1491 692424, email: [email protected]
KEYWORDS: Water Quality, Global Scale, Gridded Model, BOD, Scenarios
ABSTRACT
Global and continental scale modelling has been confined to water quantity (e.g.
WaterGAP - Water Global Assessment and Prognosis (Alcamo et al. 2003), GWAVA
- Global Water AVailability Assessment (Meigh et al, 1999)). Here we describe an
approach to include water quality at these scales within the WaterGAP model. The
application is to the pan-European area and is being carried out within the EU-funded
SCENES Project which has the principal goal of developing new scenarios of the
future of freshwater resources in Europe.
The model operates on 5x5 arc-minute grid squares. Water flows in and between grid
cells are provided by WaterGAP. The water quality loadings into the river system
comprise point sources (domestic effluent, manufacturing discharges and urban
runoff) and diffuse sources (runoff from land and scattered settlements not connected
to the public sewerage system). Point source loadings are calculated for each
country using easily available datasets. For example, the domestic load is a per
capita emission factor times by country population multiplied by the percentage of the
population connected to the sewage system, which is then reduced by the amount
removed in each of three types of sewage treatment (primary, secondary and
tertiary). Data on the amount treated in different types of sewage works is set for
each country, while the amount removed by treatment types will vary with the water
quality variable being modelled. Country level data is converted to grid square data
required by the model, according to the population in each grid square. Diffuse
sources from land are calculated by regression models based on runoff and land use
(e.g. numbers of livestock) for each model grid square.
14
The modelling system has currently been set up to simulate biochemical oxygen
demand (BOD) and total dissolved solids. The model was tested against measured
longitudinal profiles and time series data for BOD on contrasting rivers e.g. the River
Thames (UK) driven by domestic loading and the River Ebro (Spain) with a high
share of discharges from livestock farming. Further developments will see the
inclusion of total nitrogen (TN), total phosphorus (TP) and dissolved oxygen.
Within the SCENES project a set of future scenarios reflecting different outlooks on
Europe has been developed, called “Economy First”, “Fortress Europe”,
“Sustainability Eventually” and “Policy Rules”. An Expert Panel was used to suggest
what these futures would mean for drivers of water quantity and water quality across
pan-Europe. We have projected how changes in percentage population connected to
sewers, the level of sewage treatment and population would change loadings from
domestic effluent for TN, TP and BOD. In time, these will be used to predict future
water quality in European rivers.
REFERENCES
Alcamo J., Döll P., Henrichs T., Kaspar F., Lehner B., Rösch T., and Siebert S.
(2003). Development and testing of the WaterGAP2 global model of water use and
availability. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 48: 317- 337.
Meigh J.R., McKenzie A.A. and Sene K.J., (1999). A grid-based approach to water
scarcity estimates for eastern and southern Africa. Water Resources Management,
13, 85-1 15.
15
2a & 2b. Treatment
2.1 Improved Dye Adsorption for Water Treatment
Using the Arvia® Process
H. M. A. Asghar1*, S. N. Hussain1, E. P. L. Roberts1, A. K.
Campen2 and N. W. Brown2
1Department of Chemical Engineering and Analytical Science, the University of
Manchester, P.O. Box 88, Manchester M60 1QD, UK
2Arvia Technology Limited, Liverpool Science Park, Innovation Centre, 131 Mount
Pleasant, Liverpool, L3 5TF
*Corresponding Author:[email protected]
KEYWORDS: Water treatment, Arvia® process, Adsorption, Surface area,
Electrochemical regeneration.
ABSTRACT
The Arvia® process is a new technology for the treatment of water contaminated with
toxic or biologically non-degradable pollutants, using a carbon-based adsorbent
called Nyex®. Nyex® is a novel, non-porous and highly electrically conducting
adsorbent. This adsorbent material has been reported as being capable of simple,
quick and cheap electrochemical regeneration that makes it an economic adsorbent
for water treatment applications. The adsorptive characteristics of Nyex® materials
have been investigated at batch scale using an organic dye, Acid Violet 17, as the
adsorbate. The two Nyex® materials currently available have a relatively low specific
surface area (2.5 & 1 m2 g-1) and adsorptive capacities of 5 & 3.5 mg g-1 respectively.
These adsorptive capacities are significantly lower than that of activated carbon
materials which have specific surface areas of up to 2000 m2 g -1. The low surface
area of Nyex® is associated with its non-porous nature which also leads to the low
adsorptive capacity observed for Nyex® materials. This study is focussed on
improving the adsorption capacity of Nyex® materials through the development of
new adsorbents with high surface area and high electrical conductivity. The
adsorptive capacity and electrochemical regeneration characteristics have been
investigated using Acid Violet 17 as the adsorbate. Significant improvements in the
surface area (increased to 17 m2 g -1) and loading capacity of 9 mg g -1 have been
16
achieved for the adsorption of Acid Violet 17. These improved materials will enable a
reduction in the size and capital cost of the Arvia® process required to treat any given
effluent.
1. INTRODUCTION
Water contamination is becoming a worldwide problem due to rapid industrial growth.
Dyes are utilized by several industries such as textile, paper, printing, cosmetics,
pharmaceutical, rubber, food and plastics (Thinakaran et. al., 2007). The coloured
effluents of these industries may damage aquatic and human life as they inhibit
sunlight penetration into the water and reduce photosynthetic action. Some of the
dyes are carcinogenic and mutagenic (Sivaraj et. al., 2000). There are various
methods which are currently being used for colour removal e.g. biological,
coagulation, flocculation, chemical oxidation and adsorption. The removal of colour
from water by adsorption is considered the most efficient and economic way after
biological treatment. However, some of the dyes are resistent to biological
degradation due to their complex nature and synthetic origin.
In most cases activated carbon adsorption is used for colour removal. This process
has some limitations due to high cost and material loss during the thermal
regeneration process (Brown 2004). This has led researchers to work on low cost
materials for the development of adsorbents such as nut shell, fly ash, industrial and
agricultural waste etc. None of these adsorbents could be electrochemically
regenerated due to their low electrical conductivity (Kannan and Murugavel 2007,
Azhar et. al., 2005). Brown (2004) developed a new process for waste water
treatment with a unique combination of adsorption and electrochemical regeneration
in a single unit called the Arvia® process.
The Arvia® process is a newly developed technology for the treatment of water,
contaminated with toxic or biologically non-degradable pollutants, using graphite
based adsorbents called Nyex®. Brown successfully exploited this process for the
removal of phenol, crystal violet and atrazine from aqueous solutions (Brown 2004 a,
b and c). Brown also developed a range of graphite based adsorbents for water
treatment applications called Nyex® materials. These adsorbents were non-porous
and highly electrically conducting. However, they delivered a very small adsorption
capacity, for example only 3.5 mg g -1 for Acid Violet 17 in aqueous solution. The
focus of this study was to develop new adsorbents with improved adsorption capacity
and to evaluate the electrochemical regeneration capability of these materials for the
removal of Acid Violet 17 from aqueous solution.
17
2. MATERIALS & METHODS
Nyex® 1000 is a low-cost graphite intercalation compound. Elemental analysis
indicates that Nyex® 1000 is 98 % carbon content and particle size measurements
have determined the mean particle diameter to be 484 micrometre. It is non-porous,
and the BET surface area of Nyex® 1000 was determined by nitrogen adsorption and
found to be 1 m2 g1. Nyex® 500 is a newly developed graphite based adsorbent with
a mean particle size of 756 micrometre which is larger then Nyex® 1000 but aims to
have a higher adsorptive capacity. For reasons of commercial confidentiality, the
method of preparation of this material cannot be disclosed. It differs in its surface
morphology from Nyex® 1000. Nyex® 500 has some porosity, with a pore volume of
0.0684 cm3 g1. The BET surface area of Nyex® 500 was found to be significantly
higher than that of Nyex® 1000 at 17 m2 g-1.
The Acid Violet 17 dye used in this study was supplied by Kemtex Educational
Supplies under the trade name Kenanthrol Violet with a dye content of 22 %. The
Nyex® 1000 was supplied by Arvia® Technology Ltd. Adsorption and electrochemical
regeneration experiments were conducted in sequential batch reactor illustrated in
Figure 1. The comparative study of Nyex® 1000 and 500 comprised the following
steps.
Figure 1: Schematic diagram of sequential batch electrochemical cell
2.1 Adsorption kinetics
18
Batch adsorption experiments were carried out to determine the time required to
achieve equilibrium. A specified mass of Nyex® 1000 or 500 was added to samples
of aqueous solution of Acid Violet 17. The mixing was undertaken by sparging air
from the bottom of the cell. At regular intervals, 10 ml samples were taken, filtered
(Whatman GF/C filter paper) and analysed using a UV spectrophotometer.
2.2 Adsorption Isotherm Studies
Adsorption isotherms were determined by adding a fixed mass of Nyex® 1000 and
500 to 100 ml of various concentrations of acid violet solution ranging 10 to 200 mg l-
1 in a 250 ml flask. These flasks were stirred for 60 minutes at 700 rpm. After
adsorption, the solution was filtered and analysed using a UV spectrophotometer. In
order to compare the isotherms for both adsorbents, a Freundlich model fitted the
data using a least square error method.
2.3 Electrochemical regeneration
The electrochemical regeneration of the Nyex® 1000 and 500 adsorbents was
achieved in regeneration compartment of an electrochemical cell (Figure 1). The cell
was divided with a perforated 316 stainless-steel cathode separated from a graphite
anode (Arvia® Technology Ltd.) by a microporus Daramic 350 membrane. The anode
was placed 2 cm from the membrane with the active area of the anode being
dependent of the mass of adsorbent being regenerated, typically 5 cm2. The
electrolyte in the cathode compartment was a 0.3 % w/w NaCl solution. The
regeneration procedure was as follows:
i) Initial adsorption: A known weight of Nyex® 1000 and 500 was added to 1000
ml of 500 and 800 mg l-1 Acid Violet solution into the batch cell for specified time
for equilibrium conditions. Air supply was provided for mixing. After adsorption,
the solid particles were allowed to settle down into the anodic compartment of the
sequential batch reactor. The equilibrium concentration of Acid Violet 17 after
adsorption and thus (by mass balance) the initial adsorbent loading qi was
determined.
ii) Electrochemical regeneration: Once the adsorbent material settled down into
the anode compartment of an electrochemical cell, a DC current of 1 Amp. was
supplied for 60 minutes for both the adsorbents. There was no flow in the cell and
the only mixing was due to the gas bubbles produced at the electrodes.
iii) Re-adsorption: Regenerated Nyex® 1000 and 500 (contents of anodic
compartment with no further treatment) were allowed to retain their adsorption
capacity by mixing with fresh Acid Violet 17 solution. After adsorption the
19
equilibrium concentration of Acid Violet 17 and thus (by mass balance) the
adsorbent loading after regeneration qr were determined. This loading was
always calculated assuming that the loading was zero prior to the adsorption test.
For multiple adsorption / electrochemical regeneration cycles, steps (ii) and (iii) were
repeated.
3. RESULTS & DISCUSSION
Adsorption kinetic studies using Acid Violet 17 / Nyex® 1000 and Acid Violet 17 /
Nyex® 500 were undertaken in order to estimate the equilibrium time required for
adsorption of Acid Violet 17 onto both Nyex® 1000 and 500 adsorbents. The
adsorption was found to be rapid (Figure 2) with more than (60 %) of the equilibrium
achieved within 5 minutes for both Nyex® 1000 and Nyex® 500 adsorbents. The rate
of adsorption was similar for both materials although the kinetics of adsorption on
Nyex® 1000 was slightly faster. In both cases it was found that 60 minutes contact
time was sufficient to achieve equilibrium.
Figure 2: Kinetic study for Acid Violet 17 using 20 g Nyex® 1000 and 10 g Nyex®
500 adsorbents, shaken in a 1000 ml flask with initial Acid Violet 17 concentrations of
75 and 70 mg l-1 respectively.
The adsorption isotherms (Figures 3 & 4) show the adsorptive capacity for both
adsorbents. Nyex® 500 delivered improved adsorption capacity of 8 to 9 mg g-1 to
that of Nyex® 1000 with adsorption capacity of 3.5 mg g-1. However, the particle
20
surface of Nyex® 500 is partially porous and that contributed to the enhancement of
surface area and improved loading capacity. Nyex® 500 was characterized with pore
volume 0.0684 cm3 g-1 and pore diameter of 163 A and while the pore volume of
Nyex® 1000 was very small at onoly 0.003778 cm3 g-1.The small surface area of
Nyex® 1000 and 500 [1 and 17 m2g-1] is responsible for low adsorption capacity when
compared with activated carbon whose surface area may range up to 2000 m2g-1.
Although the adsorption capacity of the Nyex® materials is low, adsorption is rapid
and low cost regeneration can also be rapidly achieved. However, activated carbon is
not a suitable adsorbent for the Arvia® process as it is not capable of quick
electrochemical regeneration which is the key feature of Arvia® process. The
adsorption capacity of Nyex® 500 was increased by increasing surface area through
the formation of small pores on the surface of the particles. The newly developed
adsorbent material (Nyex® 500) is also highly electrically conducting, an essential
characteristic for its use in the Arvia® Process. High electrical conductivity of the
material ensures a low voltage drop through the adsorbent material during
electrochemical regeneration, and hence a low energy consumption.
Figure 3: Adsorption isotherm study for Acid Violet 17 onto Nyex® 1000 in a 250 ml
flask using a contact time of 60 minutes to achieve equilibrium
21
Figure 4: Adsorption isotherm study for Acid Violet 17 onto Nyex® 500 in a 250 ml
flask using a contact time of 60 minutes to achieve equilibrium
The Freundlich Eq. (1) was found to fit the isotherm data effectively. The Freundlich
constants (kf and 1/n) for both adsorbents were obtained from the log – log plot of the
solid phase equilibrium concentration (qe) versus liquid phase equilibrium
concentration (Ce), as shown in Figures 5 and 6. The kf and 1/n values for Nyex®
1000 and 500 were found to be 0.798, 2.3 and 1.74, 8.2 respectively.
nefe Ckq 1 (1)
Figure 5: Freundlich model for the adsorption of Acid Violet 17 onto Nyex®1000
(concentration range of Acid Violet 17, 20 – 150 mgl-1)
22
Figure 6: Freundlich model for the adsorption of Acid Violet 17 onto Nyex®500
(concentration range of Acid Violet 17, 10 – 150 mg l-1)
The regeneration performance was characterised by determining the regeneration
efficiency:
)100((%).i
r
q
qER (2)
Where R.E stands for electrochemical regeneration efficiency in percent, while qr and
qi are the adsorbent loading determined after regeneration and the initial adsorbent
loading respectively, measured under a same set of conditions (initial concentration
of Acid Violet 17, solution volume and mass of adsorbent).
Nyex® 500 was found to be capable of electrochemical regeneration with the same
regeneration parameters maintained for Nyex® 1000, as shown in Figures 7 and 8.
For both materials regeneration efficiencies of ~100% were achieved over five cycles
of adsorption and regeneration. When no charge was passed during the
regeneration, the regeneration efficiency decreased as the adsorbent became
saturated with the Acid Violet 17 adsorbate. It has been concluded that the
electrochemical regeneration led to the anodic oxidation of adsorbed Acid Violet 17
on the surface of the Nyex® adsorbents. After the completion of electrochemical
regeneration, the contents are transferred to the next adsorption cycle without further
treatment. The products of electrochemical oxidation were predominantly carbon
dioxide and water released from the reaction zone during the electrochemical
regeneration process.
23
Figure 7: Regeneration efficiency (based on colour removal) over a number of
sequential adsorption and electrochemical regeneration cycles with Acid Violet 17 /
Nyex® 1000 using sequential batch cell. Operating parameters; Current 1 Amp.,
Treatment time 60 min. and Charge passed 36 C g-1
Figure 8: Regeneration efficiency (based on colour removal) over a number of
sequential adsorption and electrochemical regeneration cycles with Acid Violet 17 /
Nyex® 500 using sequential batch cell. Operating parameters; Current 1 Amp.,
Treatment time 60 min. and charge passed 80 C g-1.
4. CONCLUSIONS
This study has demonstrated the improved adsorption capacity of newly developed
Nyex® 500 for the removal of Acid Violet 17 when compared to the current material,
Nyex® 1000 used in the Arvia® process. An electrochemical regeneration efficiency of
~100% was achieved with a current of 1 A for 60 minutes, and a charge of 80 C g-1.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
24
This study was carried out with the support of Arvia® Technology Ltd. The authors
also wish to express their thanks to Dr. Sackakini of the Department of Chemistry,
the University of Manchester who carried out the surface area analysis and pore size
determination of Nyex® materials.
REFERENCES
Ahmad M. M. (2008), Electrochemical oxidation of acid yellow and acid violet dyes
assisted by transition metals modified kaolin. Portugaliae Electrochimica Acta 26/6
(2008) 547 – 557.
Azhar S. S., Liew A. G., Suhardy D., Hafiz K. F. and Hatim M. D. I. (2005), Dye
removal from aqueous solution using adsorption on treated sugarcane bagasse.
American Journal of Applied Sciences 2 (11) 1499 – 1503, (2005).
Brown N.W. , Roberts E.P.L. , Garforth A. A. , and Dryfe R. A. W. (2004 a),
Treatment of Dye House Effluents Carbon Based Adsorbent Using Anodic Oxidation
Regeneration, Water Science and Technology, VOL. 49, No. 4, PP. 219-225.
Brown N.W., Roberts E.P.L., Chasiotis A., Cherdron T., and Sanghrajaka N. (2004
b), Atrazine Removal Using Adsorption and Electrochemical Regeneration, Water
Research 38, 3067-3074.
Brown N.W. , Roberts E.P.L. , Garforth A. A. , and Dryfe R. A. W. (2004 c),
Electrochemical Regeneration of A Carbon Based Adsorbent Loaded With Crystal
Voilet Dye, Electrochimica Acta 49 (2004) 3269-3281.
Brown N.W. (2005), Adsorption and Electrochemical Regeneration for Waste Water
Treatment, Ph D Thesis, Submitted to the University of Manchester, School of
Chemical Engineering and Analytical Sciences.
Brown N.W. (1995), Development of a Cleaner Process for the Manufacture of
Exfoliating Graphite. Dissertation submitted as part of the Master of Science degree
in Integrated Pollution Management. The University of Manchester, Institute of
Science and Technology, Manchester.
Kannan N. and Murugaval S. (2008), Comparative study on the removal of acid violet
by adsorption on various low cost adsorbents. Global NEST Journal, Volume 10, No.
3, pp 395 – 403, (2008).
25
Sivaraj R., Namasivayam C. and Kadirvelu K. (2001), Orange peel as an adsorbent
in the removal of Acid Violet 17 (acid dye) from aqueous solutions. Waste
management 21, (2001) 105 – 110
Thinakaran N., Baskaralingam P., Pulikesi M., Panneerselvam P., and Sivanesan S.
(2007), Removal of Acid Violet 17 from aqueous solutions onto activated carbon
prepared from sunflower seed hull. Journal of hazardous materials 151 (2008) 316 –
322.
26
2.2 Using Intermittent Sand Filter for Grey Water
Treatment: Case Studies in Jordanian Rural
Communities
Almoayied K. Assayed
University of Surrey, Guildford, Surrey GU2 7XH Tel. 07879545917 Fax.
01483686671; [email protected]
KEYWORDS: Grey water, grey water treatment techniques, intermittent sand filter,
Jordanian rural communities
ABSTRACT
This paper aims to present case studies of onsite grey water treatment in a small
rural community in Jordan and student halls of residence using septic tanks followed
by intermittent sand filter. These case studies were implemented by the
Environmental Research Centre in the Royal Scientific Society in Jordan during the
period 2006-2009 and funded by International Development Research
Centre/Canada.
Grey water is commonly defined as wastewater without input from toilets and kitchen.
In other words, grey water is a wastewater from laundries, showers and hand basins.
Separation of domestic wastewater at source is wide spread practice in many of the
rural communities in Jordan; black water from toilets is discharged to cesspools and
septic tanks, while grey water is directly discharged to the environment or used for
irrigation without treatment. Grey water comprises about 30% of the total household
water use, and it can be considered an alternative that provides non-potable water
for household usage, and thus reduces the per capita water use by 50%. For this
reason it provides an attractive and sustainable low cost water source especially in
arid and semiarid areas due to general water scarcity and the fluctuations in the
rainfall patterns. Treatment technologies for making grey water safe for indoor use or
for irrigation are many and diverse and they vary from simple systems in single
households to more advanced systems for large scale reuse. Course filtration with
disinfection represents the most common technology used for grey water treatment in
many places in the world. Septic tank followed by sand filter is an attractive
alternative for grey water treatment. Septic tanks act as a settling basin for the
wastewater. Heavy materials settle down to the bottom of the tank. Water, other
27
liquids and suspended solids are found above the sludge. Soap and grease form a
floating scum layer. Intermittent sand filters provide unsaturated downward flow of
wastewater through mineral sand, so as to provide biodegradation or decomposition
of wastewater constituents by bringing the wastewater into close contact with a well
developed aerobic biological community attached to the surfaces of the filter media.
One pilot intermittent sand filter was designed and operated in one rural village in
Jordan during 2006-2008. A 1 m3 septic tank followed by 6m2 intermittent sand filter
of 1m in depth were used to treat an average flow of 150L/Day of grey water effluent
from a single household in “Abu Al Farth” Village in the Badia of Jordan. The raw
greywater had a total BOD5 of about 1149mg/L, total suspended solids TSS of
606mg/L, COD of 1952mg/L and E.coli of 9400MPN/100mL. The treatment efficiency
of BOD5, COD, total suspended solids and E.coli were 95%, 93%, 95% and 90%
respectively. The treated grey water had an average BOD5 of 59 mg/L, TSS of 31
mg/L, COD of 161 mg/L and E.coli of 227 MPN/100mL. The quality of treated grey
water complies with the Jordanian Standards JS (893/2006) for reclaimed
wastewater reuse for restricted irrigation.
Another sand filter unit was designed and operated to treat 4m3/day of grey water
produced from student accommodation in one Jordanian university. The filter was
monitored during the period 2007-2009. The surface area of the filter was 32 m2 with
1m depth. The raw grey water had a total BOD5 of about 127 mg/L, total suspended
solids TSS of 43 mg/L, COD of 233 mg/L and E.coli of 45440 MPN/100mL. The
treatment efficiency of BOD5, COD, total suspended solids and E.coli were 94%,
92%, 98% and 98% respectively. The treated grey water for both filters were being
used for irrigation and agricultural land development which, in turn, improved land
production and crop quality.
The study concluded that low consumption rates of water in the household results in
high pollution loads of the generated grey water, and this pollution requires the grey
water to be treated before use both to conserve environment and to protect health.
The composition and characteristics of grey water vary significantly and are very
dependant on the practices of the household's inhabitants. Septic tank collection
followed by intermittent sand filter was found to be a very effective treatment system
for both low-level and high-level polluted grey water with overall removal efficiency of
more than 90%. However, failure of the sand filter due to clogging is the main
concern for the long term operation of the treatment system.
28
2.3 Application of Natural and Modified Materials for
Treatment of Acid Mine Drainage
Bogush A.A.*1, Voronin V.G.**, Galkova O.G.*, Ishuk N.V.*
* Institute of Geology and Mineralogy SB RAS, Koptyug Pr. 3, 630090 Novosibirsk,
Russia, [email protected]
** Planeta-Ra Ltd., Lazurnay str. 4/3, 630133 Novosibirsk, Russia,
1 Details for contact author: [email protected], tel. 07826272095
KEYWORDS: acid mine drainage, pollution, AMD treatment
ABSTRACT
A huge amount of waste has accumulated in the world during the last century as a
result of industrial activity. The waste products of the ore mining and processing
industry are dangerous because of the high concentration of heavy metals and low
pH. For example, sulphide tailings are oxidized by atmospheric oxygen forming acid
mine drainage (AMD) with high concentrations of SO42-, Fe, Zn, Cu, Cd, Pb and
other elements. The treatment of acid mine drainage is a critical problem at present.
Various agents (carbonate rocks, activated carbon, zeolite, iron (III) hydroxide,
cellulose, etc.), different protective screens (Sergeev et al., 1996; Doncheva and
Pokrovskiy, 1999; Maximovich and Blinov, 1994; Maximovich et al., 1999; Kovalev et
al., 2000; Zosin et al., 2004; etc.), and microbial populations (Benner et al., 2000;
Sandstrom and Mattsson, 2001; Foucher et al., 2001; Kim et al., 2000) are used to
minimise the technogenic influence of the mining and processing industry. In the
given investigation, new methods of AMD treatment have been developed on the
basis of natural (clay, peat, limestone, etc.) and modified materials (peat-humic
agent (PHA), organic-mineral complex, etc.). The combination of field, experimental,
mineralogical, physical and chemical research has been applied for solving this
problem. Various methods, such as chemical methods, AAS, IRS, XRD and SEM,
were used for this research. Laboratory investigations were carried out in the
Analytical Centre of the Institute of Geology and Mineralogy of Siberian Branch of
Russian Academy of Sciences. The chemical compounds of technogenic water and
solid wastes were investigated in detail. Methods for modification of natural materials
were utilised to intensify sorption properties of clay minerals and peats. Methods of
acid mine drainage neutralisation and decreasing contaminant concentration were
offered using the natural and modified materials. For example, peat-humic agent has
29
been produced from peat from the “Krugloe” deposit (Novosibirsk region, Russia) by
mechanical, chemical and thermobaric modifications. This agent has more humic
acids and functional groups, especially carboxyl, than peat. It is a good sorbent for
potentially toxic elements and can alkalise acid and subacid drainage waters. In this
paper we describe the use of peat-humic agent (PHA) for the treatment of acid mine
drainage. The development of the new scheme was based on investigations of
humic acid properties (Aleksandrova, 1980; Orlov and Osipova, 1988; Orlov, 1990;
Varshal et al., 1993; Bannikov, 1990; Holin, 2001; etc.) and our preliminary research
of sulphide tailings (Bogush and Lazareva, 2008; Bogush and Androsova, 2007;
Bogush et al., 2007). The PHA was used to modify kaolinite clay in order to create
organic-mineral complex. Clay, modified by microaddition of PHA, has a sorption
capacity 1.7-2 times higher than natural clay and can sorb metals in extended range
of pH from 5 to 8. Also, we propose a method of metal extraction from AMD which is
economically and ecologically preferable than simple AMD treatment. These
methods will reduce the hazardous effect of mine waste on environment.
This work was supported by RFBR grant (#03-05-64529 and #06-05-65007) and
interdisciplinary project SB RAS (#31).
REFERENCES
Aleksandrova L.N. (1980) Organic substance of soil and processes of its
transformation. Publishing house of Science, Moscow.
Benner S.G., Gould W.D., Blowes D.W. (2000) Microbial populations associated with
the generation and treatment of acid mine drainage. Chemical Geology, 169, 435-
448.
Bogush A.A. and Androsova N.V. (2007) Ecogeochemical condition of river system
of S. Talmovaya - Talmovaya - S. Bachat - Bachat - Inya (Kemerovo region).
Ecology of industrial production, 1, 8-16.
Bogush A.A. and Lazareva E.V. (2008) Migrational properties of elements in the
sulfide tailings and technogenic bottom sediment. Goldschmidt Abstracts 2008- B,
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta, Volume 72, Issue 12, Supplement 1, Pages A
92.
Bogush A.A., Letov S.V., Miroshnichenko L.V. (2007) Distribution and speciation of
heavy metals in drainage water and sludge pond of the Belovo zinc plant (Kemerovo
region). Geoecology, 5, 413-420.
30
Doncheva A.V. and Pokrovskiy S.G. (1999) Fundamentals of ecological production
engineering. Publishing house of the Moscow State University, Moscow.
Foucher S., Battaglia-Brunet F., Ignatiadis I., Morin D. (2001) Treatment by sulfate-
reducing bacteria of Chessy acid-mine drainage and metals recovery. Chemical
Engineering Science, 56, 1639-1645.
Holin J.V. (2001) Humic acids as main complexion substances. Journal
Universitates, 4, 21-25.
Kim B.H., Chang I.S., Shin P.K. (2000) Biological treatment of acid mine drainage
under sulphate-reducing conditions with solid waste materials as substrate. Water
Research, 34, 1269-1277.
Kovalev I.A., Sorokina N.M., Tsizin G.I. (2000) Selection of effective sorbent for
dynamic concentration of heavy metals from solution. Herald of the Moscow State
University, 41(5), 309-314.
Maximovich N.G. and Blinov S.M. (1994) The use of geochemical methods for
neutralization of surroundings aggressive to underground structures. In Proc. 7th Int.
Congress Ass. of Engineering Geology, Lisbon, 3159-3164.
Maximovich N.G., Kuleshova M.L., Shimko T.G. (1999) Complex screens to protect
groundwater at sludge sites. In Proc. Conference on Protection of groundwater from
pollution and seawater intrusion. Bari, 14.
Orlov D.S. (1990) Humic acids of soil and general theory of ulmification. Publishing
house of the Moscow State University, Moscow.
Orlov D.S., Osipova N.N. (1988) Infra-red spectrums of soil and soil components.
Publishing house of the Moscow State University, Moscow.
Bannikova L.A. (1990) Organic substance in hydrothermal ore formation. Publishing
house of Science, Moscow.
Sandstrom A. and Mattsson E. (2001) Bacterial ferrous iron oxidation of acid mine
drainage as pre-treatment for subsequent metal recovery. International Journal of
Mineral Processing, 62, 309-320.
Sergeev V.I., Shimko T.G., Kuleshova M.L., Maximovich N.G. (1996) Groundwater
protection against pollution by heavy metals at waste disposal sites. Wat. Sci. Tech.,
34(7-8), 383-387.
31
Varshal G.M., Velyuhanova T.K., Koshcheeva I.J. (1993) Geochemical role of humic
acids in migration of elements. In Proc. Conference on Humic substances in
biosphere, 97-117.
Zosin A.P., Priymak T.I., Avsaragov H.B., Koshkina L.B. (2004) Laboratory research
of cementing materials for protective barriers on basis of metallurgical slag, 4, 342-
345.
32
2.4 Exploring the Potential of Agricultural Constructed
Wetlands to Mitigate Diffuse Pollution
Deasy C.1*, Quinton J.*, Stoate C.** and Bailey A.P†
* Lancaster Environment Centre, Lancaster University, Lancaster, LA1 4YQ
** Game & Wildlife Conservation Trust, Loddington House, Main Street, Loddington,
Leicestershire, LE7 9XE
†Department of Agriculture, University of Reading, Reading, RG6 6AR
1Contact author. Tel: 01524 593971; fax: 01524 593985; email: [email protected]
KEYWORDS: Diffuse pollution, agriculture, mitigation, constructed wetland
ABSTRACT
Pollution from diffuse agricultural sources is currently of concern for water quality,
with recent Defra figures suggesting that agriculture is responsible for 70% of
sediment, 60% of nitrate, and 25% of phosphorus inputs into rivers and lakes. In the
UK, in-field mitigation options such as minimum tillage have been found to be
effective at reducing sediment and nutrient loss in surface runoff (Deasy et al., 2009).
In-field approaches are unable to tackle pollutants which do manage to reach ditches
and streams, for example through sub-surface flow pathways such as artificial
drainage systems. However, edge-of-field mitigation options, such as constructed
wetlands, which can tackle pollution from drain outfalls and ditches have potential for
tackling diffuse pollution from all runoff pathways. Constructed wetlands have been
well-researched outside the UK, particularly in Norway, where they are now used as
an option within agri-environment schemes (Ulén et al., 2007), but very little data are
available in relation to their potential for use within UK landscapes. The Defra-funded
MOPS2 project (2008-2013) aims to make recommendations on the use of
constructed wetlands for diffuse pollution control by creating and monitoring ten of
these features in agricultural landscapes across the UK. The effectiveness of a
number of constructed wetland designs will be determined over the course of the
project.
Three types of constructed wetland are being trialled, shallow single ponds, shallow
paired ponds, and deep and shallow paired ponds. Shallow ponds are 0.5 m deep,
and act as filters to trap sediment and associated nutrients. The shallow depth
33
means that emergent macrophyte vegetation can grow, which can help trap sediment
and nutrients and prevent sediment resuspension. Deep ponds are around 1.5 m
deep, and act as sedimentation traps, which may allow increased storage of
sediment. Paired ponds also have the potential to increase the effectiveness and
longevity of constructed wetlands. In addition, three sizes of wetland are being
tested, a ‘medium size’ which represents 0.05% of the catchment area or 50 m2 for
each 10 ha, a ‘small size’ which is half this, and a ‘large size’ which is double this.
The ‘medium size’ wetland is the size of wetland shown to be effective n Norway,
where it is the size required for subsidised state funding. The constructed wetland
systems in this project are designed so that the flow length is maximised, with a
width:length ratio of around 1:5. Where systems are shorter, barriers are used to
route flow through the ponds. As these systems are not designed to take heavily
polluted runoff from point sources, ponds are currently unlined. Risk of pollution
losses to groundwater will be assessed in a later part of the project.
Six constructed wetlands have been built to date at three sites on different soil types
in Cumbria and Leicestershire (Table 1), with different designs of wetland mixed
between the sites. A further four wetlands are to be implemented in 2010, at
locations to be confirmed. Flow and sediment particle transport through the
constructed wetlands is measured at wetland inlets and outlets through continuous
monitoring of flume water levels and turbidity, while collection of water samples
during storms allows assessment of sediment and nutrient transfer into and out of the
wetland. Assessment of sedimentation rates and sediment sampling will also be
carried out in the course of the project. The data will be used to generate wetland
sediment and nutrient budgets and calculate sediment and nutrient load reductions
and wetland effectiveness.
As the constructed wetlands are expected to mature and vegetate naturally over
time, some maintenance is likely to be required in order to prevent the wetland
becoming clogged with vegetation, remove stored sediment, and prevent the wetland
becoming a source for pollution rather than a sink. Previous work in Scandinavia has
focused on the effectiveness of new constructed wetlands for pollution control (e.g.
Braskerud et al., 2005) but there is limited information available relating to effects of
wetland maturation or on the level of maintenance required over time. It is expected
that a wetland may need to be dredged after five to ten years, depending on the size
of the wetland and the sediment load. The sediment in the retention ponds can be
considered a nutrient resource, and samples will be analysed in order to assess the
fertiliser value of the dredged sediment for farmers.
34
Constructed wetlands are relatively inexpensive to build, but real farm-scale costs will
be assessed within the MOPS project once all sites are completed. In addition,
farmer questionnaires and focus groups will also be used to acquire farmer feedback
and assess likeliness of uptake by farmers of all in-field and edge-of-field mitigation
options explored. In this paper we explain the constructed wetland designs being
trialled, discuss issues relating to their implementation, and present some early
results of the project.
REFERENCES
Braskerud, B., Tonderski, K. S., Wedding, B., Bakke, R., Blankenberg, A.-G. B.,
Ulen, B. and Koskiaho, J. (2005). Can constructed wetlands reduce the diffuse
phosphorus loads to eutrophic water in cold temperate regions? Journal of
Environmental Quality, 34, 2145-2155.
Deasy, C., Quinton, J. N., Silgram, M., Bailey, A. P., Jackson, B. and Stevens, C. J.
(2009). Mitigation Options for Sediment and Phosphorus Loss from Winter-sown
Arable Crops. Journal of Environmental Quality, 38, 2121-2130.
Ulén, B., Bechmann, M., Fölster, J., Jarvie, H. P. and Tunney, H. (2007). Agriculture
as a phosphorus source for eutrophication in the north-west European countries,
Norway, Sweden, United Kingdom and Ireland: a review. Soil Use and Management,
23, 5-15.
35
Table 1. Location, design, sizes, sources and status of constructed wetlands used as
edge-of-field mitigation options for diffuse pollution within the MOPS2 project.
Site DesignContributing
Area(ha)
SizeArea(m2)
ApproxDimensions
(m)
RunoffSource
Status
1Shallowpairedponds
10Large(0.1%area)
100 7 x 15 DitchFinishedautumn2008
1
Deep &shallowpairedponds
4
Medium(0.05%area)(0.025%area)
20 2 x 10 DrainFinishedautumn2009
1Shallowsinglepond
9Small
(0.025%area)
22 2 x 11SurfaceRunoff
Finishedautumn2009
2Shallowpairedponds
20Large(0.1%area)
190 33 x 6SurfaceRunoff
Finishedautumn2009
2
Deep &shallowpairedponds
50Small
(0.025%area)
125 25 x 5 Stream
Delayeduntil June2009 (dueto EALandDrainageConsents)
2Shallowsinglepond
10Medium
(0.05%area)
50 17 x 3 DrainFinishedautumn2009
3
Deep &shallowpairedponds
30Large(0.1%area)
320 40 x 8 DrainFinishedautumn2009
Site 1 = Loddington, Leicestershire, site 2 = Crosby Ravensworth, Cumbria, site 3 =Plumpton, Cumbria
36
2.5 Recovering Resources and Reducing the Carbon
Footprint: a Better Way to Deal with Wastewater
Screenings
N.J. Horan*, L.S. Cadavid+*1, N. Wid*
* School of Civil Enginnering, University of Leeds, United Kingdom
+Area de Ingeniería, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Palmira, Colombia
1Luz Stella Cadavid, Assistant Professor, Universidad Nacional de Colombia,
Palmira, Colombia; PhD student, University of Leeds, United Kingdom; Fax: (44)
01133432265; Email: [email protected]
KEYWORDS: Wastewater Screenings, carbon footprint, anaerobic digestion,
methane potential, nutrients recovery
ABSTRACT
Currently the wastewater sector faces a big challenge to maintain and improve
effluent quality while reducing carbon emissions and energy consumption in all its
processes. One material which is a by-product of the treatment process and for
which little attention has been paid, is wastewater screenings which are recovered
from the screens that are found at the inlet to all treatment plants. There is no ideal
disposal method for this waste and in the UK they are disposed of primarily to landfill
with a smaller fraction incinerated. As a result the potential CO2e emitted to the
atmosphere is around 1.8 tonnes per tonne of dry screenings disposed.
The UK water industry is responsible for emitting around 5 million tonnes of CO2 per
annum and currently accounts for 3% of the nation’s total energy demand. It is the
third most energy intensive sector. Therefore given the current urgent need for
reducing carbon emissions, the sector has a key role to play. Innovative solutions are
needed to reduce emissions, particularly in the treatment of wastewater, because this
area is responsible for about 56% of total sector emissions. One solution that already
contributes to the reduction of CO2 emissions and which offers the alluring possibility
of energy self-sufficiency in the wastewater treatment is the application of anaerobic
digestion. If this could be extended to include wastewater screenings it would not
only reduce more than 50% of the CO2 emissions caused when screenings are
landfilled, but also produce a significant amount of renewable energy in the form of
methane.
37
In addition to methane production, anaerobic digestion of wastewater screenings
may also provides the opportunity to recover the nutrients phosphorus and nitrogen.
As readily recoverable phosphorus is anticipated to be exhausted in 50 – 100 years,
it is important to identify opportunities for recycling these nutrients from other
sources. This paper will show that screenings have potential to yield 0.45 m3
methane/m3 VS applied and with the release of up to 13% phosphate and 60% of
nitrogen in the liquid phase when digested under mesophilic conditions. However the
engineering design of the digester is crucial in order to handle this difficult waste.
38
2.6 Natural Wastewater Treatment Systems for
Nitrogen Control and Recovery
Camargo-Valero, M. A.
School of Civil Engineering, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT. Tel. +44 (0)113
3431957; Email: [email protected]
KEYWORDS: Natural wastewater treatment, nitrogen control, waste stabilization
ponds
ABSTRACT
The increasing accumulation of reactive forms of nitrogen in the biosphere is largely
attributed to the industrial production of nitrogen fertilizers, which has increased
almost tenfold in the past seven decades. Ultimately, water bodies will receive the
excesses of nitrogen loads after they have fed intensive agriculture and animal
production systems for supplying food to an exponentially growing world population
and supporting an emerging fuel-from-crop industry. Wastewater treatment works
(WWTW) contribute to mitigate negative environmental impacts due to the discharge
of reactive nitrogen species into receiving water bodies by using nitrification-
denitrification processes; however, only 5% of the total volume of wastewater
receives tertiary treatment (nutrient control) worldwide. The global commitment for
carbon footprint reduction in the water industry is driving the development of new,
and adaptation of existing, low-carbon/ carbon-neutral technologies that will help to
meet nutrient control targets in WWTW. Natural wastewater treatment systems like
Waste Stabilisation Ponds (WSP) may play an important role to achieve such targets
and therefore, it is important to improve our understanding about the dynamics of
nitrogen species in WSP. This work reveals the main nitrogen transformation
pathways and removal mechanisms in WSP in the UK, and presents the feasibility of
implementing Natural Wastewater Treatment systems for nutrient control and
recovery in rural and small communities.
39
3a & 3b. Monitoring, Ecosystems &Health
3.1 Identification of nitrate sources in a chalk water
supply catchment in Yorkshire, UK
Grayson, R.1, Kay, P. 1 and Nixson, N. 2
1School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK.
2Yorkshire Water Services Ltd, Western House, Western Way, Bradford, BD6 2LZ,
UK.
KEYWORDS: Diffuse pollution; groundwater; surface water
ABSTRACT
Diffuse nitrate pollution from agriculture remains problematic from a water quality
perspective. Nitrate concentrations within the River Hull, East Yorkshire, UK, have
increased gradually since the 1970s and are now routinely close to the EU statutory
limit of 11.3 mg N l-1. Fortnightly monitoring of eight surface water sites and three
groundwater sites was undertaken over a one year period to identify the main
sources of nitrate within the R. Hull catchment. Nitrate was found to be high
throughout the catchment, being highest in the groundwater samples in the north,
with surface water sites showing a slight decrease downstream as the contributions
from surface runoff and the lower less polluted part of the aquifer increase
downstream. Given that groundwater is the dominant source of nitrate, catchment
management is unlikely to reduce nitrate pollution in the R. Hull in the short to
medium term due to the residence time of the aquifer (estimated to be decades);
however intervention now may reduce nitrate in the longer term.
40
3.2 Impacts of Artificial Drainage and Drain-blocking
on Peatland Stream Ecosystems
Ramchunder, S.*, Brown, L. and Holden, J.
School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT
*Email: [email protected]
KEYWORDS: Stream benthic macroinvertebrates; catchment-scale remediation
ABSTRACT
Peatlands are important global systems however; many have been intensively
managed through artificial drainage and drain-blocking. This study discusses the
impacts of these management interventions on stream benthic macroinvertebrates
across northern England compared with intact peatland systems. Results indicate
compositional shifts in artificially drained systems, while species compositions in
drain-blocked sites were typically similar to levels in intact systems. Therefore, drain-
blocking appears to be an effective catchment-scale remediation strategy.
41
3.3 Distribution and Sources of Polycyclic Aromatic
Hydrocarbons in the Mediterranean Lebanese
Seawater
A. Kouzayha*, M. AL Iskandarani*, B. Nsouli*, H. Budzinski** and
F. Jaber*1
*Analysis of Pesticides and Organic Pollutants Laboratory (LAPPO), Lebanese
Atomic Energy Commission (LAEC), National Council for Scientific Research
(CNRS), Beirut, Lebanon
**Université Bordeaux 1, CNRS, ISM–LPTC–UMR 5255 (Laboratory of Physico- and
Toxico-Chemistry), 351 Cours de la Libération, 33405 Talence, France
1Corresponding author. Farouk Jaber, Lebanese Atomic Energy Commission, P.O.
Box: 11-8281 Riad El Solh 1107 2260 Beirut, Lebanon. Tel.: +961 1 450811 (303);
fax: +961 1 450 810. Email address: [email protected].
KEYWORDS: Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons (PAHs) analysis; Mediterranean
Lebanese surface seawater; Solid Phase Extraction (SPE); Gas Chromatography–
Mass Spectrometry (GC–MS).
ABSTRACT
Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) are widespread environmental
contaminants and have been extensively studied due to their toxicity, carcinogenicity,
mutagenicity and bio accumulative effects in aquatic organisms (3,4,5,9). Several
factors influence the presence and distribution of PAHs in the marine environment,
such as petroleum contamination due to large oil spills accidents and oil discharges
from ships, fallout from air pollution and terrestrial runoff (2,11,17). The Lebanese
coastal zone that stretches to about 225 km of length with about nearly 2.6 million
people resident there, presents 13 pollution hot spots from north to south according
to the European Environment Agency EEA (7). Domestic and industrial wastes are
discharged directly on the shore and into the sea in the major coastal cities. Maritime
transport is also a major source of petroleum hydrocarbon pollution along the
Lebanese coastline. In addition, about 15000 tons of heavy fuel oil have been spilled
into the Mediterranean Lebanese sea after the bombing of the Jiyeh power plant,
located at the south of the capital Beirut, during the war in July 2006 (3).
42
The aims of this work were to study the distribution of 15 PAHs (Table 1), classified
as priority pollutants by the United States Environmental Protection Agency US EPA
(11), for the first time in the surface seawater along the Lebanese coast in the
eastern part of the Mediterranean basin, and to try to identify their sources.
1. SAMPLING, EXTRACTION, ANALYSIS AND QUALITY CONTROL
This study was carried out between January 2009 and April 2009. Water samples
were collected in 2.5 L dark glass bottles from 5 sites located in north Lebanon
(Tripoli Port, Tripoli Mina, Kalamoun, Chekka and Batroun Selaata), 3 sites located in
the capital Beirut (Saint-George Port, Beirut Ramle Bayda and Beirut Manara) and 7
sites located in south Beirut and in south Lebanon (Damour, Jiyeh, Sayda, Tyr
Murex, Tyr Katolik, Tyr Christians and Tyr Khiyam). Figure 1 shows the Lebanese
coast map and the sampling sites.
Figure 1. Map of the Lebanese coast and the selected sampling sites
Water samples were vacuum filtered through a Whatman GF/F filter (0.7 μm
porosity). Each seawater sample (1 L) was preconcentrated by solid phase extraction
(SPE) using CHROMABOND® C18 ec polypropylene columns (3 ml, 200 mg) from
Machery-Nagel with a flow rate of 2-3 ml/min. The C18 cartridges were pre-
conditioned and activated with 2 x 3 ml of methylene choride (DCM), 3 ml methanol
and finally 3 ml of distilled water before sample percolation. The SPE system used
was Vac Elut 20 from Varian with Visiprep™ Large Volume Sampler from Supelco.
After drying the SPE sorbent under high vacuum for 1 hour, they were eluted by 9 ml
DCM under low vacuum. The DCM collected volume was reduced under a stream of
nitrogen at 50°C to a volume less than 100 μL.
43
Table 1. 15 PAHs analysed and 3 deuterated PAHs as internal standards, their
abbreviations, retention times and diagnostic m/z ions in SIM mode of GC/MS
Compound Abbreviation tR m/z Internal Standard tR m/z
Acenaphthylene ACY 18.489 152
Phenanthrene
D1027.313 188
Acenaphthene ACP 19.364 154
Fluorene FLR 21.714 166
Phenanthrene PHE 27.446 178
Anthracene ANT 27.446 178
Fluoranthene FLT 35.819 202
Fluoranthene D10 35.706 212
Pyrene PYR 37.294 202
Benzo(a)Antharcene BaA 46.506 228
Chrysene D12 46.603 240
Chrysene CHR 46.772 228
Benzo(b)Fluoranthe
ne
BbF 54.155 252
Benzo(k)Fluoranthe
ne
BkF 54.324 252
Benzo(a)Pyrene BaP 56.106 252
Indeno(1,2,3-
cd)Pyrene
IcP 62.813 276
Dibenzp(a,h)Anthrac
ene
DhA 63.182 278
Benzo(ghi)Perylene BgP 64.091 276
44
Figure 2. Chromatogram of 15 PAHs
The analysis of samples was performed in an Agilent Gas-Chromatographic GC
6890N coupled to a Mass-Spectrometry detection MSD 5975 Inert utilizing high pure
helium as carrier gas, an HP- 5MS column and the following separation conditions:
60°C for 2 min to 155°C at 5°C/min, then 155°C for 2 min to 280°C at 3°C/min,
splitless injection mode, temperature of injector was set at 240°C. All samples were
analyzed in Single Ion Monitoring (SIM) mode for quantification as indicated in Table
1. Internal standard calibration was used for quantification of the extracts. The
deuterated surrogate standards were added to both samples and spiked waters prior
to the extraction. Surrogate and internal standards for each group of PAHs are
shown in Table 1. The chromatogram of the 15 PAHs standards and 3 deuterated
PAHs is presented in Figure 2.
The validation of chemical analysis were performed via a recovery determination of a
blank water sample spiked with a known amount of PAHs (1 μg L-1) and processed
according to the described method. The yields of recovery and the concentrations in
samples were calculated according to concentrations of all PAHs in Standard
Reference Solution from ChemService (Cat.PPH-10RPM) with concentration 100
mg/L of each. The recoveries of different PAHs obtained (Figure 3) ranged between
70% for Acenaphthylene (ACY) and 106% for Benzo(a)Anthracene (BaA). Laboratory
analytical precision was determined by making replicate analysis to ascertain
reproducibility. The standard deviations of PAHs recovery calculated in spiked tests
were less than 20% (Figure 3). The average standard deviation was about 12%. The
limits of detection (LOD) of the individual PAHs were calculated as signal to noise
ratio 3:1 and ranged from 0.05 ng/L for Phenanthrene (PHE) and 0.1 ng/L for
Dibenzo(a,h)Anthracene D(a,h)A. Intensive efforts were made to avoid contamination
and blank cartridges were made with all series of extraction.
45
Figure 3. Mean recovery (%) and standard deviation SD (%) of individual PAHs for
replicates (n = 10)
2. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The total concentrations (the sum of all the 15 PAHs) and the concentration of
individual PAHs determined for all sites are presented in Figure 4. ∑PAHs values in
the surface seawater were found in the range of 25-50 ng/L at the most polluted
sites, and in the range of 3-15 ng/L at the other sites. The relatively high
concentrations observed for Beirut Saint George Port are linked to the amount of
boat traffic and the constant petroleum spills in the small closed port. High PAHs
concentrations found in Sayda city might be associated with the discharge of
domestic wastewater and solid wastes in this area located in south Lebanon
compared to the other sites.
Although intercomparison studies of PAH analysis are relatively poorly developed in
aqueous samples, the values measured can be considered as relatively moderate
levels in water in comparison with the few results reported for marine systems around
the Mediterranean (0.5-2.2 ng/L in the open western Mediterranean (4) and 50 ng/L
in southeastern Mediterranean (6).
PAHs composition (Figure 5) was dominated by three- and four-rings compounds.
The low presence of heavy PAHs of five- and six- rings is indicative of the strong
binding of these PAHs to the dissolved or solid matters and their low seawater
solubility. The study of the composition of PAH mixtures can provide useful
information regarding the origin of these compounds. This predominance of the low
molecular weight PAHs, common to all sites, is characteristic of uncombusted fossil
fuel residues (13). In sites of Batroun-Selaata, Sayda and Tyr-Murex, the presence of
46
heavy PAHs with higher percentages than other sites indicates an additional pyrolytic
source of PAHs.
Figure 4. Concentration of the sum of the 15 PAHs in seawater (ng/L)
Figure 5. Percentage of individual PAHs values in samples
Diagnostic interpretation of the distribution of certain PAHs in seawater such as
PHE/ANT and FLT/PYR ratios has been used to distinguish the possible pyrogenic or
pyrolytic sources of pollution in the sea. Some characteristic values for molecular
indices used to investigate PAHs sources are given in Table 2.
47
Table 2. Characteristic values of molecular indices for pyrolytic and petrogenic
origins of PAHs
PHE/
ANT
FLT/
PYR
ANT/(AN
T+PHE)
FLT/(FLT
+PYR)
CHR/
BaA
BaA/
CHR
(PHE/AN
T)/
(FLT/PYR
)
Pyrolytic
origin
< 10 > 1 > 0.1 > 0.5 < 1 > 0.9 0-10
Petrogeni
c origin
> 10 < 1 < 0.1 < 0.5 > 1 ≤ 0.4 > 10
Reference 15 14 15 14 9 9 1
Based on the ratios of PHE/ANT plotted against values of FLT/PYR in Figure 6 and
on the ratios of CHR/BaA plotted against values of FLT/PYR in Figure 7, it can be
seen that seawater was mainly contaminated by petrogenic PAHs in some sites
(Saint George-Port, Beirut Manara and Beirut Ramle Bayda) and by pyrolytic PAHs
in other sites (Sayda, Tyr Murex). In addition, it was also observed that the
occurrence of PAHs may originate from both pyrolytic and petrogenic sources in
some sites (Jiyeh, Sayda, Kalamoun, Tyr Christians and Tyr Khiyam).
Figure 6. Values of PHE/ANT plotted against values of FLT/PYR
48
Figure 7. Values of CHR/BaA plotted against values of FLT/PYR
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors want to thank the National Council for Scientific Research Lebanon and
the Lebanese University for the financial support.
REFERENCES
(1) Baumard, P., Budzinski, H., Mchin, Q., Garrigues, P., Burgeot, T., Bellocq, J.,
1998. Origin and bioavailability of PAHs in the Mediterranean Sea from mussel
and sediment records. Estuarine, Coastal and Shelf Science 47, 77–90.
(2) Benner, B.A., Bryner, N.P., Wise, S.A., Mulholland, G.H., Lao, R.C., Fingas, M.F.,
1990. Polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons emissions from combustion of crude oil
on water. Environmental Science and Technology 24, 1418–1427.
(3) Challita D., The Daily Star Newspaper, May 28, 2007
(4) Dachs, J., Bayona, J.M., Raoux, C & Albaiges, J., 1997. Spatial, Vertical
Distribution and Budget of Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons in the Western
Mediterranean Seawater. Environmental Science and Technology, 31: 682-688.
(5) Durant, J.L., Busby Jr., W.F., Lafleur, A.L., Penman, B.W., Crespi, C.L., 1996.
Human cell mutagenicity of oxygenated, nitrated and unsubstituted polycyclic
aromatic hydrocarbons associated with urban aerosols. Mutation Research 371,
123–157.
(6) Ehrhardt M. & Petrick, G., 1993. On the composition of dissolved and particle-
associated fossil fuel residues in Mediterranean surface water. Marine Chemistry,
42: 57-70.
49
(7) European Environment Agency, Priority issues in the Mediterranean
environment, EEA Report No 4/2006, ISSN 1725-9177, pp. 36
(8) Fabbri, D., Baravelli, V., Giannotti, K., Donnini, F., Fabbri, E., 2006.
Bioaccumulation of yclopenta[cd]pyrene and benzo[ghi]fluoranthene by mussels
transplanted in a coastal lagoon. Chemosphere 64, 1083–1092.
(9) Gschwend, P.M., Hites, R.A., 1981. Fluxes of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons
to marine and lacustrine sediments in the northeastern United States.
Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 45, 2359
(10)Harvey, R.G.,1997. Polycyclic Aromatic Hydrocarbons. Wiley-VCH, New York,
pp. 682
(11)Hoffman, E.J., Mills, G.L., Latimer, J.S., Quinn, J.G., 1984. Urban runoff as a
source of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons to coastal waters. Environmental
Science and Technology 18, 580–587.
(12)Ohnishi, S., Kawanishi, S., 2002. Double base lesions of DNA by a metabolite of
carcinogenic benzo[a]pyrene. Biochemical and Biophysical Research
Communications 290, 778–782.
(13)Saeed, T & Al-Mutairi, 2000. Comparative composition of polycyclic aromatic
hydrocarbons (PAHs) in the sea water-soluble fractions of different Kuwaiti crude.
Research, 4: 141-145oils. Advances in Environmental
(14)Sicre, M.A., Marty, J.C., Saliot, A., Aparicio, X., Grimalt, J., Albaiges, J., 1987.
Aliphatic and aromatic hydrocarbons in different sized aerosols over the
mediterranean sea: occurrence and origin. Atmosphere Environment 21, 2247–
2259
(15)Soclo, H., 1986. Etude de la distribution des hydrocarbures aromatiques
polycycliques dans les sediments marins recents, identifucation des sources.
Ph.D. Thesis, University Bourdeaux I, Bourdeaux, France, 158 pp.
(16)United States Environmental Protection Agency., Toxics criteria for those states
not complying with the Clean Water Act section 303(c)(2)(B), 40 CFR 131.36, pp.
531-538, 1995.
(17)Vieites, D.R., Nieto-Roman, S., Palanca, A., Ferrer, X., Vences, M., 2004.
European Atlantic: the hottest oil spill hotspot worldwide. Naturwissenschaften
91, 535–538.
50
3.4 Impacts of Agricultural Stewardship on Water
Quality in Upland Catchments
Kay, P.
School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds, LS2 9JT, UK.
KEYWORDS: Diffuse pollution; nitrate concentrations; groundwater; chalk catchment
ABSTRACT
Agricultural stewardship has been pursued with increasing vigour over the past
decade and is seen as a potential solution to agricultural pollution. For instance, the
European Union’s Common Agricultural Policy now provides subsidies to farmers for
environmental protection rather than food production. Despite this, a great deal of
uncertainty exists as to the effectiveness of these measures. A recent review of the
scientific literature has shown that although some measures have been proven to
reduce nutrient and pesticide pollution there is no existing data to support the use of
other techniques. To complicate the issue, some measures work very well in certain
scenarios but not others. For instance, experimental work in a chalk catchment in
England showed that agricultural stewardship could not be expected to reduce nitrate
pollution for the next thirty years due to the residence time of groundwater.
Nevertheless, other monitoring in a relatively impermeable catchment has shown that
nitrate concentrations have decreased by up to 50 % in some streams where farm
advice has been delivered to reduce nutrient pollution. Further work is required,
however, to determine the precise reasons for this. Overall, there remains great
uncertainty as to whether agricultural stewardship can solve the problem of diffuse
pollution, despite the fact that there is much promising data.
51
3.5 Real Decisions on Water Quality: Monitoring and
Modelling to an Appropriate Level
Elwell, F. C.* and Wren, E. L.*1
* Mott MacDonald Ltd
1Mott MacDonald Ltd, 2 Brewery Wharf, KendellStreet, Leeds, LS10 1JR
0113 394 9371; Email: [email protected]
KEYWORDS: hydroecology, water quality monitoring, water quality modelling.
ABSTRACT
In 2006-2007 an extensive water quality monitoring programme was implemented
across Southern England. It formed part of a wider hydroecological study to assess the
impacts of 21 wastewater treatment works (WwTW) on sites designated for their nature
conservation importance (Special Protection Areas, Special Areas of Conservation,
Ramsar Sites and Sites of Special Scientific Interest) under the AMP4 framework. These
sites included wet grassland, coastal lagoons, estuaries, rivers, reservoirs and ditch
systems.
The challenge was to determine the appropriate level of detail at each site in terms of
both the field monitoring and the subsequent modelling. For each site a conceptual
model was developed through combination of the information collated on water quality,
flows, groundwater and ecology. This was sometimes sufficient to satisfactorily
address the concerns of the regulator. In other locations (a reservoir and a river
system) increased complexity meant that more detailed water quality modelling was
required.
This paper considers the relative complexities of several of the designated sites; how the
regulator’s concerns varied between sites and influenced the required approach; and
highlights the need to use an appropriate level of science. We show that although
techniques varied, in all cases an appropriate level of monitoring and modelling was
employed in order to reach a conclusion that met the differing needs of the regulator and
the water company in a cost and time effective manner.
52
3.6 Evaluation of THMs Concentration and Cancer
Risk Assessment in Tehran’s Drinking Water
Alireza Pardakhti1*, Ghlomreza Nabi Bidhendi 2 , Ali Torabian3
1Instructor., Graduate Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran
2Prof., Graduate Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran
3Prof., Graduate Faculty of Environment, University of Tehran
*Corresponding author: No: 23 Ghods st, Univ of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
[email protected]; Tel: 0098-9121008230; Fax: 0098-21-22246420
KEYWORDS: Risk Assessment, THMs, DBP, Tehran, drinking water.
ABSTRACT
This study monitored trihalomethanes (THMs) concentration and performed a cancer
risk assessment on Tehran’s drinking water supplies. THMs are the main disinfectant
by-product (DBP) of chlorination, and are suspected to be human carcinogens. The
most significant group of DBPs is trihalomethanes (THMs), which include chloroform
(CHCl3), bromodichloromethane (CHCl2Br), dibromochloromethane (CHClBr2), and
bromoform (CHBr3). Chlorination is the main disinfection process for drinking water
in Tehran, therefore; it is important to monitor for THMs in Tehran’s drinking water.
There are 6 water districts in the city of Tehran as well as an outside district which is
not managed by the Tehran’s Urban Water and Wastewater Company (called District
7 in this study). Samples were taken from twenty one locations across the city (all 7
districts) in triplicates during a seven month period. They were collected directly from
taps of consumers after letting the water run for several minutes before collecting the
water in pre-cleaned glass containers with sodium-thio-sulfate preservative to
eliminate any residual chlorine. The samples were analyzed for THMs using EPA
method 524.2. A Purge & Trap device (Tekmar) was used in conjunction with a Gas
Chromatograph-mass spectrometer (6890 GC/5973 MSD, Agilent).
The highest average concentrations of total THMs are in District 2 and District 1
followed by District 4 > District 3 > District 5 > District 6 > and District 7. Chloroform
had the highest concentration among the THM species, followed by
bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane and bromoform (Figure 1).
53
Figure 1: Average concentrations of THM species in different districts.
The maximum concentrations of total THMs were seen in Districts 1 and 2 with 19.5
ug/L and 17.94 ug/L while the mean concentrations were 8.95 and 9.0 ug/L
respectively. The lowest total THM concentration was seen in District 7 followed by
Districts 6 and 5 at 0.81 ug/L, 2.34 ug/L and 3.64 ug/L (Table 1). It is obvious that
District 7 with only well water sources has the lowest concentration of THMs while
Districts 1 and 2 with the highest percentage of surface water show the highest
concentrations of THMs compared to districts with well water as their main water
source which are located mostly in the south and south west part of Tehran.
The highest total THMs concentrations of drinking water measured in this study were
below the MCL of 80 ppb established by EPA. Nevertheless, the THM forming
potential exists in Tehran’s drinking water, especially in districts with surface water
sources. It is essential that the necessary precautions are taken to remove TOC from
the raw water before chlorination.
The most frequent compound observed in all tested drinking water was also
chloroform followed by dibromochloromethane, bromodichlormethane and
bromoform. In Districts 1 and 2 the frequency of the first three compounds was 100%
but the frequency of bromoform was only 25.4%. In the other districts the frequency
of observation is much closer among the four THM species, for example in District 5
the frequencies are 85.7%, 71.4%, 81% and 76.2% respectively (Figure 2).
District 7 with only well water sources has the highest ratio of bromoform to total
THM (36%) and Districts 4, 5, and 6, which also have a large portion of their water
coming from well water sources, have ratios between 4 and 7%, whereas Districts 1,
2, and 3 which are supplied mostly with surface water have ratios of less than 1%
(Figure 3). These findings are most likely due to the higher concentration of bromine
in the well water compared to surface water.
54
Table 1: Statistical information for THMs concentrations in all districts.
Districts Minimum
THMs
Conc.(ug/L)
Maximum
THMs
Conc.(ug/L)
Mean
THMs
Conc.(ug/L)
District
1
3.10 19.50 8.95
District
2
3.80 17.94 9.00
District
3
0.34 12.60 6.53
District
4
2.62 16.64 6.86
District
5
N.D 8.71 3.64
District
6
0.24 5.96 2.34
District
7
(outside)
N.D 5.20 0.81
Figure 2. Percent frequency of THM species in different districts.
55
Figure 3: Ratio of THM species in different districts
Using the average concentration of each THM species, the life-time cancer risks
through inhalation, ingestion, and dermal routes were calculated using EPA and DOE
data inputs.
The life-time cancer risk assessment for total THMs indicates that, inhalation is the
most important route of entry followed by ingestion and dermal exposure for the
greater city of Tehran (Figure 4). For example, the risk from total THM in District 1 is
3.19E-5, 1.02E-5 and 2.37E-9 for inhalation, ingestion and dermal absorption, and
1.64E-6, 9.03E-7, and 3.13E-10 for District 7.
Figure 4: Comparative risks from inhalation, ingestion and dermal exposure to total
THMs
56
The highest cancer risk among THM species in Tehran is from chloroform in District
2 at 2.02E-05 and the lowest cancer risk is from bromoform in District 1 at 1.60E-08.
The cancer risks from chloroform in the greater city of Tehran are 1.11E05 for
inhalation, 4.09E-07 for ingestion and 4.38E-10 for dermal contacts. The life time
cancer risk form chloroform via inhalation route is 96.4% of total risk caused by
chloroform, but the ingestion risk is only 3.5% of the total risk (Table 2).
Table 2: Life time cancer risks from chloroform via different routes.
CHCl3 ingestion
Risk
Inhalation
Risk
Dermal
Risk
Total Risk
District 1 7.11E-07 1.93E-05 7.615E-10 2.00E-05
District 2 7.16E-07 1.95E-05 7.673E-10 2.02E-05
District 3 4.57E-07 1.24E-05 4.89E-10 1.29E-05
District 4 5.14E-07 1.40E-05 5.507E-10 1.45E-05
District 5 2.41E-07 6.56E-06 2.585E-10 6.80E-06
District 6 2.00E-07 5.42E-06 2.137E-10 5.62E-06
District 7
(outside)
2.52E-08 6.81E-07 2.702E-11 7.07E-07
The highest risk from total THMs is in District 2 at 4.22E-05 and the lowest risk in
District 7 at 2.55E-06. The average risk for the greater city of Tehran from all THM
species is at 2.50E-05 (Table 3). The cancer risk from THMs in drinking water is
much greater in Districts 1, 2 and 3 which are located in the more affluent
neighbourhoods and their drinking water sources are mostly surface water.
Table 3: Total life time cancer risks and Cancer cases from THM species in Tehran.
57
Districts/THMs Total
Risk
CHCl3
Total
Risk
CHCl2Br
Total
Risk
CHClBr2
Total
Risk
CHBr3
Total
Risk
THM
District 1 2.00E-05 1.53E-05 6.74E-06 1.60E-08 4.21E-05
District 2 2.02E-05 1.58E-05 6.21E-06 2.10E-08 4.22E-05
District 3 1.29E-05 1.24E-05 5.18E-06 1.78E-08 3.05E-05
District 4 1.45E-05 1.08E-05 5.73E-06 9.74E-08 3.11E-05
District 5 6.80E-06 5.02E-06 4.24E-06 8.00E-08 1.61E-05
District 6 5.62E-06 2.99E-06 1.92E-06 4.12E-08 1.06E-05
District 7 7.11E-07 6.29E-07 1.11E-06 9.53E-08 2.55E-06
There are almost 1.5E+6 people living in each of the 6 urban water districts and
almost 3.0E+5 people live in District 7. Using the total THM risk values in Table 3,
one would expect 63, 63, 46, 47, 24, 16, 8 life time cancer cases for Districts 1
through 6 respectively. There seems to be a significant difference among the number
of cancer cases in different districts. One important observation is that more affluent
districts (Districts 1, 2 and 3) have much higher cancer cases than less affluent
neighborhoods (Districts 5, 6 and 7).
Based on the available population data (Statistic Center of Iran) and assuming the
average THM concentration for all of Tehran’s province, the life time cancer cases
caused by THM’s exposure from drinking water is 3.50E+02 or 5 cancer cases per
year for the 1.4E+7 people living in the greater Tehran province. Estimation of
approximately 5 cancer cases per year (average for the entire province) caused by
human exposure to THM from drinking water may not be significant compared to the
10364 cancer cases reported for Tehran province during one year (national cancer
registry in 2006-2007).
58
4. Treatment: Part 2
4.1 The Use of Calligonum comosum Stems as a New
Adsorbant Material for the Removal of Toxic Cr (VI)
Ions from Aqueous Media
Ackacha, M.A. 1 and Azaga, R.
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Sebha University, Libya.
1Corresponding author: e-mail: [email protected]; M. phone: +218 92
5138617 ; Fax +218 71 262 7039
KEYWORDS: Calligonum comosum, Adsorption, chromium removal, Langmuir
isotherm, Frundlich isotherm
ABSTRACT
In recent years, the removal of toxic heavy metals from polluted waters has received
much attention Agricultural materials as low cost adsorbents have been commonly
used in such removal. In this paper, the adsorption capacity of Calligonum comosum
stems as a new adsorbent material for the removal of toxic Cr(VI) ions from aqueous
solutions was investigated using batch experiments.
Different parameters affect adsorption capacity such as the initial pH of adsorbate,
particle diameter of adsorbent, adsorbent dose, contact time, contact temperature,
initial concentration of adsorbate, and ionic strength; these were studied in order to
optimize the conditions of adsorption process.
Three different kinetic models such as first-order reaction, second-order reaction and
intra-particle diffusion were investigated. Langmuir and Freundlich isotherms were
applied in this study. Thermodynamic parameters such as Gº, Hº and Sº were
calculated. The Langmuir monolayer capacity (q max) were found as 102.04, 106.38 ,
117.65 and 142.86 mg/g at 303, 313, 323 and 333 K, respectively.
59
4.2 Detection of Genes for Toxin Production in
Cyanobacterial Strains Tested for Sensitivity Towards
Barley Straw Inhibition
Lalung J.*, Duggan P., Iredale R. and Adams D.G.
Faculty of Biological Sciences, University of Leeds, U.K. LS2 9JT
*Corresponding author: Email: [email protected], Tel: (0113) 3435607
KEYWORDS: cyanobacteria, barley straw, PCR
ABSTRACT
Cyanobacteria are an enormously abundant group of photosynthetic prokaryotes that
are capable of forming massive populations in a water body known as blooms.
Blooms can be harmful because they attenuate sunlight and may also produce toxins
harmful to animals and humans. The production of toxins is not species-, but gene-
specific (Bittencourt-Oliveira, 2003) and so the prediction of toxicity based on
identification of the cyanobacteria using morphological characteristics is likely to be
unreliable. A better way to predict the likely toxicity of a bloom is the use of molecular
techniques to detect the genes for toxin production. Control of bloom formation using
chemicals such as copper sulphate can have damaging environmental
consequences. An alternative is the use of rotting barley straw, the efficacy of which
has been confirmed by many researchers. However, some studies have shown
selective sensitivity of cyanobacterial strains towards straw inhibition (Ferrier et al.
2005). Therefore, it is important to ensure that straw is capable of controlling toxin-
producing strains, while its effect towards non-toxic strains can be similar or minimal.
This study consisted of two parts, a) determining the barley straw sensitivity of
cyanobacterial strains isolated from a local water body and b) testing of the strains
for the presence of genes for toxin production. Five cyanobacterial strains were
examined, namely Microcystis SD1, Microcystis SD2, Anabaena sp.,
Pseudanabanea SD1 and Pseudanabaena SD2. Anabaena sp. was resistant
towards barley straw applications, while all the other strains were susceptible. These
strains are now being tested for the presence of genes involved in toxin production,
using PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction) amplification.
REFERENCES
60
Bittencourt-Oliveira, M. C. (2003). Detection of potential microcystin-producing
cyanobacteria in Brazilian reservoirs with a mcyB molecular marker. Harmful Algae
2(1): 51-60.
Ferrier, M. D., B. R. Butler, et al. (2005). The effects of barley straw (Hordeum
vulgare) on the growth of freshwater algae. Bioresource Technology 96(16): 1788-
1795.
61
4.3 Biological Phosphorus Removal and Relevant
Microorganism Characteristics of Sludge at Municipal
Wastewater Treatment Plants, China
Wang H., Li H., Zhou L. and Zhang Z.1
College of Natural Research and Environmental Sciences, ZheJiang University,
China.
1Corresponding author: Dr. Zhang ZhiJian, College of Natural Research and
Environmental Sciences, ZheJiang University, KuanXian Avenue 268, HangZhou,
ZheJiang Province, 310029, China. Tel: (+86) 571 8697 1854; Fax: +86 571 8697
1719; Email: [email protected].
KEYWORD: EBPR, batch tests, Accumulibacter, Competibacter, influent composition
ABSTRACT
Municipal wastewater discharge is threatening the ecological security of local water
environments. This study investigated the treatment processes and microorganism
characteristics in municipal wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) in northern
Zhejiang, China. The results showed that four WWTPs met the required criteria of
phosphorus (P) for discharge (≤1 mg/L) but with significant difference in sludge
performance. P release and uptake rates were varied from 0.224 mg/gVSS/h to 7.77
mg/gVSS/h and 0.626 mg/gVSS/h to 8.106 mg/gVSS/h respectively. Low proportions
of Accumulibacter (3.8%-8.7%) and relatively high proportions of Competibacter
(3.2%-9.1%) were found. Low ratios of anaerobic P/HAc (e.g., 0.496 mg/mg) in the
process tended to contribute to the high percentage of the Competibacter. It is
therefore a considerable challenge for these wastewater treatment plants to meet
higher requirements in discharge. Denitrifying polyphosphate accumulating
organisms (DNPAOs) were estimated to be 42.5% and 30.4% of polyphosphate
accumulating organisms (PAOs) in Hangzhou and Jiaxing wastewater treatment
plants. There are significant linear relationships between acetate concentration and
acetate uptake rate, P release rate and uptake rates, demonstrating there is great
relation between the ratio of biodegradable carbon to P in influent and performance
of the sludge. The strategies of reducing industrial wastewater, appropriate dosing of
carbon source and application of separate pre-denitrifying tank are recommended to
favor EBPR system.
62
4.4 Nano-zeolite Formation from Coal Fly Ash and Its
Potential for Recovering NH4+ and PO4
3- from
Wastewater
Chen X., Wang H., Tang Y., Zhang Z.
College of Natural Research and Environmental Sciences, ZheJiang University,
China.
Corresponding author: Dr. Zhang ZhiJian, College of Natural Research and
Environmental Sciences, ZheJiang University, KuanXian Avenue 268, HangZhou,
ZheJiang Province, 310029, China. Tel: (+86) 571 8697 1854; Fax: +86 571 8697
1719; Email: [email protected].
KEYWORDS: Zeolite; fly ash; ammonium; phosphate; wastewater
ABSTRACT
Nutrients recovered from wastewater have a duel benefit for resource-regeneration
and water quality improvement. The possibility of converting coal fly ash (CFA) to
nano-zeolite was evaluated and its application in the recovery of NH4+ and PO4
3- from
wastewater was investigated in this study. The CFA samples, collected from four
different power plants in China, were used to synthesize a nano-class zeolite using a
laboratory-scale hydrothermal technique. Experimental results have demonstrated
that a number of factors including the NaOH:CFA ratio, time and temperature during
the synthesis process have a significant effect on the type and degree of zeolitisation
achieved. The optimum conditions for zeolite P synthesis were found to be a
multifactor function of temperature (95-120℃), liquid/solid ratio (6 -12L/g), NaOH
concentration (1－3mol/L) and reaction time (3－5h). The X-ray diffraction (XRD) test
found a marked decrease in SiO2 content but roughly no change in Al2O3 content
during the synthesis process, while quarts gradually dissolved and mullite remained
stable. There was a remarkable increase in cation exchange capacity (CEC) (from
6.4-12.3 times), phosphate immobilization capacity (PIC) (from 3.2-8.5 times) and
specific surface area (from 20.1-90.2 times) as a result of conversion of fly ash to
zeolite. The synthetic zeolite products display significantly increased adsorption
capacities of NH4+ and PO4
3-compared to raw material.
63
5. Nutrients
5.1 Long-term DOC Export from UK Peatlands
Howden N. J. K.1, Worrall, F.2 and Burt, T. P.3
1Department of Civil Engineering, University of Bristol, Queen’s Building, University
Walk, Bristol, BS8 1TR, UK, [email protected]
2Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University
3Department of Geography, Durham University
KEYWORDS: Dissolved organic carbon (DOC), carbon export from peatlands, time
series analyses
ABSTRACT
In this paper we present a 60-year time series of monthly average dissolved organic
carbon concentrations in the Yorkshire River Ouse (August 1945 to date), measured
at Skelton in York – a catchment area of 3315 km2, of which up to 30% may be
classed as peat-covered. This is the longest time series of observations of fluvial
organic carbon losses from a peatland catchment and provides a further 20 years of
observations compared with previously published records. We use this dataset to
compare the long-term trends in DOC concentrations and fluxes from the Yorkshire
Ouse with those observed in the River Coquet (589 km2 1965 to date) and River
Tees (818 km2 1970 to date).
We show that there has been no increase in dissolved organic carbon concentration
or flux over the period of the Ouse record, and that the pattern of fluxes prior to 1970
does not conform to that inferred by various hypotheses used to explain reported
rises in DOC concentrations and fluxes post-1970.
We then consider the DOC export per unit area of peat cover for each of the three
catchments. Given that the area of peat cover within the contributing catchment
areas is a major source of uncertainty, we used the national soil map to determine
the area of both deep and surface peat cover for each of the three study catchments.
The DOC export per unit area of peat is then calculated in two ways: assuming deep
peat is the only DOC contributor; and assuming that both deep and surface peats
contribute. From these calculations we construct annual DOC flow-flux relationships
for the three catchments. These show that the three catchment systems are never
64
supply-limited – i.e. that there is an inexhaustable supply of DOC. This suggests that
the main driver of changes in both DOC concentrations and fluvial DOC fluxes is not
related to production, but to changes in flow. We use the flow-flux analyses to show
that the fluvial DOC export relative to flow is the same in all three catchments.
Our analyses of these long-term datasets suggest it may not be possible to control
catchment-scale fluvial carbon exports from peatlands using restoration techniques,
and that future carbon exports will depend more upon changes in hydrological regime
(i.e. increased rainfall) as the key driver.
65
5.2 In-situ Measurement of Nutrient Dynamics and
Cycling in Freshwaters
Palmer-Felgate, E.J.*1, Jarvie, H.P.*, Bowes, M.*, Mortimer,
R.G.**, Krom, M.D.**
*Centre for Ecology and Hydrology
**School of Earth and Environment, University of Leeds
1Contact Author: Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Maclean Building, Crowmarsh
Gifford, Wallingford, Oxfordshire, OX10 8BB, UK, e -mail address: [email protected]
(Elizabeth J. Palmer-Felgate)
KEYWORDS: Phosphorus; High-resolution; DET probes; River; Wetland; Nitrogen.
ABSTRACT
In-river nutrient concentrations are controlled by source inputs, hydrology and in-
stream processes, such as biological uptake or cycling within sediments. The
research presented here examines different aspects of nutrient cycling in rivers and
wetlands along with two in-situ techniques used to explore them.
a) Synchronous high resolution monitoring of final sewage effluent and downstream
river water to study in-stream phosphorus dynamics. Most studies on the source and
fate of phosphorus in rivers have been based on weekly or even monthly spot
measurements. However due to the short term variability of in-stream phosphorus
concentrations, loads may be underestimated and valuable information on source
dynamics may be lost. Recent in-situ instrumentation allows phosphate dynamics to
be captured on an hourly timescale. Hourly in-situ phosphorus measurements were
collected over a 1-2 year period from two sewage treatment works (STW)
discharging into the river Kennet (Marlborough and Newbury STWs). Hourly in-situ
phosphorus measurements were also collected within the river at a site 2 km
downstream of the Marlborough discharge (Mildenhall) and a site 2 km downstream
of the Newbury discharge (Chamberhouse). Diurnal and flow-event related patterns
were observed in the phosphorus concentrations within the river and these were
linked with changing point-source inputs from the upstream STWs and diffuse
sources (Figure 1).
66
Figure 1. Hourly total reactive phosphorus (TRP; unfiltered molybdate reactive
phosphorus) concentrations from the final effluent at Marlborough sewage treatment
works and in-river at Mildenhall, 2 km downstream.
b) DET (diffusive equilibration in thin films) probes to study the impact of point-source
pollution on phosphorus and nitrogen cycling in stream-bed sediments. Work in
freshwater systems has shown the importance of redox conditions on the uptake and
release of P and N from bed sediments. However much of this work has been based
on laboratory mesocosm experiments. Due to the sensitivity of these sediment
processes to in-situ environmental conditions, this is not ideal. DET technology
allows the chemical gradients at and below the sediment-water interface to be
measured in-situ. Soluble reactive phosphate (SRP), nitrate, nitrite, ammonium,
sulphate, iron and manganese profiles were measured in a rural stream, 12m
upstream, adjacent to and 8m downstream of a septic tank discharge. The presence
of sewage fungus adjacent to the discharge resulted in anoxic conditions directly
above the sediment. SRP and ammonium increased with depth through the fungus
layer to environmentally significant concentrations (13500 µg-P/l and 35 mg-NH4/l),
respectively) due to release at the sediment surface (Figure 2). The mechanism of
this release is discussed.
67
0 2000 4000 6000 8000 10000 12000 14000 16000
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
-8
-6
-4
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
0 20 40 60 80 100 120
SRP (µg-P/l)
Depth(cm)
Fe (mg/l) and Ammonium (mg-NH4/l)
Fe
Ammonium
SRP
Ammoniumfungus layer
Fe and SRPfungus layer
Sedimentwaterinterface
Figure 2. Porewater profiles for SRP (soluble reactive phosphorus), ammonium, and
Fe.
c) Phosphorus and ammonium release from sediments in a treatment wetland: DET
gel probes versus EPC0 measurements. DET probes were deployed to measure
phosphorus and ammonium profiles across the sediment-water interface in a
constructed wetland pond treating bird waste. The profiles showed significant
diffusion of phosphorus and ammonium from the sediment pore-waters to the
overlying water (Figure. 3). The Equilibrium Phosphorus Concentration (EPC0) of the
sediment was also measured in the laboratory, but indicated that the sediment had
the potential to take up phosphorus from the overlying water. This discrepancy was
attributed to the fact that EPC0 is not an in-situ method and hence the results did not
reflect the redox conditions present.
68
0.0 5.0 10.0
-10.0
-8.0
-6.0
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
-10.0
-8.0
-6.0
-4.0
-2.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
0 300 600 900 1200
Ammonium (mg-NH4/l)
Depth(cm)
SRP (µg-P/l)
SRP
AmmoniumSedimentwaterinterface
Figure 3. Porewater profiles for SRP (soluble reactive phosphorus) and ammonium.
This research demonstrates the power of in-situ measurements to answer some of
the fundamental questions about nutrient cycling in freshwaters.
69
5.3 Microcosmic Investigation on Characteristics and
Mechanisms of Phosphorus Cycling Between Water
and Sediment Subjected to Warming
Zhang Z.*1, Li J.*, Wang H.*, Wang Z.**, YinMei Z.*
* College of Natural Research and Environmental Sciences, ZheJiang University,
China.
** Nanjing Institute of Geography and Limnology, Chinese Academy of Science,
China.
1Details for contact author: Dr. Zhang ZhiJian, College of Natural Research and
Environmental Sciences, ZheJiang University, KuanXian Avenue 268, HangZhou,
ZheJiang Province, 310029, China. Tel: (+86) 571 8697 1854; Fax: +86 571 8697
1719; Email: [email protected]
KEYWORDS : Phosphorus, warming, microcosm, phosphatase, phospholipid fatty
acids
ABSTRACT
Global warming poses a broad threat to many ecosystems, among which the
biogeochemical cycling of phosphorus (P) in the water-sediment interface of
wetlands is particularly vulnerable with regard to wetland ecological stability and
water quality improvement. In this paper, we collected six types of wetlands
representing different topographical utilisation around the TaiHu Lake Basin in
Southeast China. An outdoor computerized microcosm was setup in May 2008 to
simulate seasonal and daily variations in two climate scenarios: ambient temperature
(CK) and ambient temperature + 5oC. The 14-month incubation period indicated that
climate warming induced movement of P from upper sediments into the overlying
water and accelerated sediment P release into porewater; the intensity of P release
from sediment to porewater (increments percentages from 19.3% to 112.8% for TP)
was greater than that to overlying water. Global warming appears to enhance the
activity of neutral phosphatase and alkaline phosphatase in wetland sediment
deficient in P but only neutral phosphatase for sediments rich in P. A significant
increase of total phospholipid fatty acids (PLFAs) occurred in those sediments with
relatively low levels of PLFAs. Also, global warming appears to reduce the ratio of
bacteria to total biomass (+5oC = 0.29-0.66; CK = 0.49-0.68), but does not
significantly shift the ratio of aerobic to anaerobic organisms in wetland sediment.
70
Further work is required to improve understanding of long-term warming on
dependent P in subtropic wetlands.
71
5.4 Are Climate Factors More Important than Nutrient
Supply in Determining River Phytoplankton
Populations?
Hutchins, M. G.* and Johnson, A. C.
Centre for Ecology and Hydrology, Wallingford, Maclean Building, Benson Lane,
Crowmarsh Gifford, Oxfordshire OX10 8BB.
*Corresponding author: email [email protected], telephone 01491 692478
KEYWORDS: phytoplankton, river water quality modelling
ABSTRACT
Nutrient supply is one of the essential requirements for primary production in rivers.
Phytoplankton are an important part of the food web supporting river ecosystems, but
uncontrolled blooms may destabilise these very same systems. This study
represents experimental and modelling approaches to assess how river
phytoplankton will respond to climate changed conditions. In particular it will attempt
to ask to what extent potentially increased nutrient concentrations will exacerbate
blooms as opposed to increases in temperature, sunlight hours or reduced flows. To
try to unravel, or test, the role of these different factors in propagating algal blooms in
real river networks, a model is essential. The setting up of the QUESTOR model in
the Yorkshire Ouse will be demonstrated and its predictions of algal blooms against
existing data reviewed. Impacts of reducing diffuse, or point source, nutrient inputs
compared to other potential mitigating measures will be examined. The model will
also be run using regional climate changed conditions for 2080 based on UKCIP02.
Experimental evidence on the potential moderating influence of grazers will also be
reviewed; and these and other current gaps in understanding will be identified.
The study primarily involves a detailed simulation of water quality in a specific river
network yet use of the fundamental concepts the model represents has wide-ranging
implications. Understanding the interplay between factors limiting phytoplankton
growth allows planning of spatially-targeted mitigation at a regional scale. An
example for the Humber region will be presented, showing the importance of routine
chemical monitoring in facilitating such planning. This illustrates how priorities can be
made for future management of rivers to enable quality to be maintained in a
changing world.
72
6. Tools
6.1 Catchment Monitoring Network Protects the
Thames River
Hanson, Darren
YSI Hydrdata, European Support Centre, Unit 2 Focal Point, Lacerta Court, Works
Rd., Letchworth, Herts. SG6 1FJ, UK. Web: www.ysi.com; Email: [email protected]
KEYWORDS: Water Quality, Catchment Monitoring, River, Environment Agency
ABSTRACT
Water quality in the River Thames has been linked to the activities of mankind for
centuries. In 1858 Parliament had to be suspended because of the stench arising
from pollution in the river, but today MPs’ noses are no longer necessary for the
detection of water pollution; a network of sixty highly sophisticated monitoring
stations relay live water quality data to the UK Environment Agency (EA) and other
stakeholders.
Rising in Gloucestershire and flowing through the Cotswolds, passing through Oxford
and Windsor, the River Thames meets the North Sea after passing through London.
With a length of 215 miles, the Thames is the longest river entirely in England.
However, the water quality of the river is constantly under threat.
During the 1960s and 70s, improvements were made at the two main sewage
treatment plants at Crossness in southeast London and Beckton in east London,
resulting in a dramatic improvement in water quality. As a result, many different
animals, birds and fish have returned to live and breed in the estuary. Today there
are 121 different species of fish and over 170,000 birds.
As a consequence of the increasing environmental pressures on water resources,
the Thames Region of the Environment Agency has developed a catchment
monitoring network of fixed, transportable and fully mobile Automatic Water Quality
Monitoring Stations (AWQMS) collecting real-time data for transmission back to the
Environment Agency.
73
6.2 Novel Combinations of Sensor Technology and
Data Analysis for Safe Drinking Water Production
Cauchi, M.*, Knight, P, Bessant, C. and Setford, S.
Cranfield Health, Building 63, Cranfield University, Cranfield, Bedfordshire MK43
0AL, UK
Tel: +44 (0) 7917 589 126; Fax: +44 (0) 1234 758 380.
Email: [email protected]
KEYWORDS: Drinking water quality; Ground water; Monitoring; Technology;
Modelling; Heavy metals; PAHs; Multivariate calibration
ABSTRACT
Providing safe and high quality drinking water is essential for a good quality of life.
However, the water resources around the world, particularly in Europe are threatened
by various sources of contamination. This had led to the development of concepts
and technologies to create a basis for the provision of safe and high quality drinking
water. This resulted in the formation of the EU-funded (FP6) Artificial Recharge
Demonstration project (ARTDEMO). The overall aim was to develop a management
tool which would contain a suitable monitoring system that was able to detect both
organic pollutants such as polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), estrogens,
progestogens, antibiotics and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), in addition to
inorganic pollutants such as heavy metals (arsenic, mercury, lead and cadmium).
Ideally, automatic real time data acquisition would be integrated with intelligent
decision software. On-line and at-line sensor systems coupled with fast field “hand-
held” analysis kits in the form of personal digital assistants (PDAs) were also a
requisite of the management tool.
The overall aim of this work at Cranfield University in relation to the ARTDEMO
project was to develop a real-time automated water monitoring system, capable of
using data from various complementary sources to determine the amounts of
inorganic and organic pollutants. This would be achieved in stages. Firstly,
application of multivariate calibration to data acquired via the analytical technique of
differential pulse anodic stripping voltammetry (DPASV) for the simultaneous
detection and quantification of the target heavy metal analytes. These involved using
disposable screen-printed electrodes. Secondly, development of a prototype
application on a personal digital assistant (PDA) device in which data is collected and
74
mathematical models are generated to link the field-based PDA with the laboratory-
based instrument. Thirdly, the at-line analysis at potential contamination sites using
the PDA in which an instant response is required was investigated. The PDA
application imports the acquired voltammograms, standardises them against the
laboratory-acquired voltammograms, and simultaneously predicts the concentrations
of the target analytes, thus providing quantitative screening of target metal ions.
Finally, application of multivariate calibration to data acquired via the analytical
technique of fluorescence spectroscopy for the simultaneous determination and
quantification of the PAHs (anthracene, phenanthrene and naphthalene) is also
presented.
This work represents significant progress in the development of analytical techniques
for water quality determination, in line with the ARTDEMO project's aim of
maintaining a high quality of drinking water.
75
6.3 What Can Complex Network Theory Tell Us About
Water Quality in a Distribution Network?
Virden, D.W.1,2, Noakes, C. J.1, Sleigh, P.A.1, Coddington, P.2
1Pathogen Control Engineering Institute, School of Civil Engineering, University of
Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT
2Yorkshire Water Services, Western House, Western Way Halifax Road, Bradford
BD2 2LZ
KEYWORDS: water distribution modelling; VASTNet; Graph Theory; asset
management.
ABSTRACT
In the developed world water is collected from various sources (boreholes, river
abstraction and reservoirs) and treated by large water treatment works before being
distributed to the customer via a distribution network. In the process of moving the
water from source to customer, the water travels down a specific path through the
water distribution network. At any point on this path an unexpected event, such as a
pipe failure may affect the water quality. Understanding the structure and behaviour
of the network is key to responding effectively to such an event and understanding
the impact of such an event on water quality and customer service.
Yorkshire Water has a complicated distribution network consisting of 770,000
discrete lengths of water main with a combined length of 31,000km. In addition there
are 960,000 valves and tee junctions which connect these discrete mains together to
form the network. These discrete mains vary in diameter from 18mm to over 2m in
diameter and from under 0.5m to over 5km in length. These variations and the sheer
number of elements make modelling the water distribution network a complicated
task. Conventionally, water distribution networks are visualized and analyzed in two
ways. GIS based approaches are used to plot the geographical location of assets.
Although these can be tagged with properties of the asset such as size, age and
material, the approach is simply a database and evaluation of the network is on the
whole limited to visual inspection. At the other end of the scale is hydraulic modelling,
whereby a detailed model of the network is created and the flow through the network
determined by the solution of flow and energy equations. While this gives a detailed
picture of the behaviour of the network that is capable of simulating transient flow
76
effects and the transport of contaminants, constructing such a model for large areas
of the network is unfeasible in both time and computational terms.
This paper outlines the VASTNet project, an alternative approach to analyzing a
distribution network that enables quantitative analysis over very large regions of the
network. By treating the water distribution network as a series of nodes and edges
formed by the assets and the mains which link them it is possible to get previously
unobtainable insight into the network structure and performance. The collection of
connected nodes and edges are, in this context, referred to as a graph. Graph
Theory and Complex Network Theory are the study of the properties of these graphs
of nodes and edges. This paper demonstrates how these theories can be applied to
a water distribution network to analyze and visualize properties of the network that
are relevant to supply water quality.
As quality issues often arise from unexpected failure in the network, an indication of
robustness and resilience of the water distribution network is an important parameter
that can be determined from this approach. In Graph Theory a critical node is called
a bridge and defined as an element that, when removed, splits the graph, or network,
into two distinct regions. A cut vertex is a node which achieves the same result. The
VASTNet model enables these critical assets to be identified automatically for
regions of the network, which provides vital information about which points in the
distribution network are the biggest potential weaknesses, informing asset
management programmes and incident planning. By being able to model the water
distribution network as a collection of nodes and edges also allows the connectivity of
the water distribution network to be assessed. Several approaches have been
considered including tracing possible routes through the network, for example from
source to customer. This approach has great potential for investigating the impact of
a water quality incident. Having this model of the connectivity allows the properties
that may be affected by a water quality incident to be easily identified and also
enables the likelihood and viability of any alternative supply route to be assessed.
To date analysis has been carried out on regions of the Yorkshire water supply
distribution systems ranging in size from 10,000 to 100,000 elements; up to 43% of
the entire network in a single analysis. In addition to the measures outlined above, a
number of statistical measures have been calculated on a network wide basis
including shortest path, element criticality and number of connected properties. By
applying the VASTNet model to different areas of the network it enables regional
comparisons to be made and the potential to relate water quality incidents to broad
features including age, pipe material, network structure and terrain. While the tool is
77
still currently in development it is ultimately intended that this information will be
routinely used to better inform investment and replacement in the water distribution
network, and respond accordingly to unusual or infrequent events.
78
7. New Initiatives, Future Issues
7.1 Demonstration Test Catchments as a Means of
Developing a Robust Evidence Base for Catchment
Management
Harris, B.1*, McGonigle, D.1 and Burke, S.2
1Department of Environment Food and Rural Affairs; 2Environment Agency
*Corresponding author: mobile: +44(0)7528 687742, fax: +44(0)114 222 5700.
KEYWORDS: agriculture, pollution, ecology, ecosystem services.
ABSTRACT
The Demonstration Test Catchments (DTC) project is an exciting new initiative of
Defra and the Environment Agency. It provides a research platform from which an
integrated assessment of the effectiveness of potential mitigation measures for
reducing diffuse pollution from agriculture can be developed. It considers the impacts
and effects on both ecosystems and sustainable production. The project will produce
evidence to test the hypothesis that we can cost-effectively reduce the impact of
agriculturally derived diffuse pollution on ecology and the delivery of ecosystem
services through the implementation of multiple on-farm measures. The outcomes
will be delivered by linking currently disparate research on interrelated impacts of
agriculture on the environment, developing communities of practice with wider
stakeholder groups and using existing data, information and knowledge more
effectively to provide a more robust evidence base. Initially, the focus is on diffuse
water pollution and water use in agriculture. Biodiversity, air quality, soil quality and
greenhouse gas emission tradeoffs will be considered where there is an interface
with water quality and in the longer term the framework will encourage other research
strands to be joined - e.g. on climate change, flood risk etc.
River catchments are highly complex systems. We must understand them better from
both natural sciences and the socio-economic viewpoints in order that we can
manage the land to maximise the ecosystem services provided. There are multiple
interactions between the sometimes-competing environmental, social and economic
factors that are seldom considered holistically. The effect of implementing measures
79
at the farm or field scale, to achieve improvements at larger spatial scales, must be
better understood. We also need to understand better the intrinsic delays in the
system, particularly where pollutant transport is via long pathways, and the recovery
of ecosystems once water quality is improved. The project aims to test the efficacy of
both novel and existing measures which can be integrated into farming practice
without disproportionately impacting food production. The evidence base for existing
measures will be drawn together from work already being undertaken within the
Demonstration Catchments and elsewhere within the UK and Europe.
The project will develop an evidence-based approach so that the results can be
applied to other catchments. Although the detailed way in which measures are
applied will differ between catchments, the approach to designing the solutions
should be similar. This will make the process more transparent to stakeholders. The
approach will use data, information and knowledge appropriately. Measures selected
for testing will not be prescribed; rather they will be applied as appropriate to local
pressures. Three pilot catchments have been selected as case studies: the River
Wensum in Norfolk, the River Eden in Cumbria and the River Avon in Hampshire.
They have been selected for their variable natural features and agricultural land use.
New R&D consortia will oversee and co-ordinate the research activities in each
catchment. The consortia will not be exclusive and there will be free exchange
between the demonstration catchments. The interchange of research approaches,
experimentation and results being carried out in other catchments will be actively
encouraged.
80
7.2 How Effective is the Implementation of Controls on
Diffuse Pollution Under the Water Framework
Directive in Scotland? Answers and Questions From
the Lunan Diffuse Pollution Monitored Catchment
Project
Vinten A.*, Stutter M*, Dunn S*, Potts J**, MacDonald J***, Napier
F.***, Jeffrey W.**** and Christian C. ****
*Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Catchment Management Group,
Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen AB15 8QH. (44) 1224 498200 Fax: (44) 311556 E-mail:
** Biomathematics and Statistics Scotland, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen AB15 8QH
*** Scottish Environment Protection Agency Erskine Court, Castle Business Park,
Stirling.FK9 4TR
**** SAC Consulting Environment & Design Pentland Building Bush Estate, Penicuik
EH26 0PH
KEYWORDS: water policy; diffuse pollution; audits
ABSTRACT
Diffuse pollution is the most significant pollution pressure leading to failure of the
water environment in Scotland to achieve objectives set out in the EU Water
Framework Directive. The River Basin Plans (www.sepa.org.uk/water/
river_basin_planning) set out programmes of measures to achieve improved
compliance; Scotland is at the initial stages of implementing a national coordinated
strategy to mitigate rural diffuse pollution based on a national programme of
guidance, awareness raising and training and a targeted approach in Diffuse
Pollution Monitored Catchments. These have been selected using a risk based
approach and contain some of Scotland’s most important waters for drinking,
bathing, fishing and conservation.
But how effective are these measures at catchment scales? Evidence based policy
needs this question to be answered, and the Scottish Diffuse Pollution Monitored
Catchments project, is an attempt to provide answers.
81
The Lunan Water is a 134 km2 catchment in Angus, Eastern Scotland. It was
identified by SEPA as a typical mixed arable farmland catchment, at risk of failing to
meet WFD water quality standards for Good Ecological Status, as set out by the
Water Framework Directive and identified in the SEPA pressures and impacts report:
www.sepa.org.uk/pdf/publications/wfd/Article_5_Scotland_River_Basin.pdf. In
addition, the catchment is a Nitrate Vulnerable Zone, drains to a designated bathing
water, and previously supported a population of salmon and sea trout. Much of area
is underlain by groundwater bodies which are vulnerable to nitrate pollution. Within
the catchment are two Lochs, Rescobie and Balgavies, which have been designated
as an SSSI covering 1.78 km2. These lochs suffer from over-enrichment with P
leading to serious eutrophication in summer, which also affects the Lunan Water
downstream. The project, which was launched as a joint initiative in 2006, is a
platform which enables practical assessment of some of the key principles of the
Scottish diffuse pollution mitigation strategy, summarised in the basin plans. These
key principles and how the project is assessing and highlighting these principles are
set out below:
Key principle 1. A catchment approach is required. Key elements of the whole
catchment have been characterised in terms of ground and surface water hydrology,
chemistry, ecology, soils and land use. Preliminary estimates of the P sources based
on this characterisation, has led to a rationale for additional regular and event based
sampling of water flow, chemistry and ecology across a number of sub-catchments
which feed into Rescobie and Balgavies Lochs. This has provided a >2-year, pre-
intervention baseline. For the groundwater work, a catchment model has enabled
better understanding of the links between surface and groundwater to be made.
Water balance data indicate that groundwater leakage occurs at the sub-catchment
scale, but is subsequently returned to the river at the main Lunan catchment scale.
The groundwater appears to contribute between 10 and 20% of the total stream flow.
The groundwater dating work has provided evidence that, in some areas, reductions
in nitrate pollution will not be effective in ameliorating groundwater nitrate
concentrations for a number of years. Rapid ecological appraisals (riparian and
aquatic vegetation, hydromorphology, diffuse pollution, aquatic invertebrate ecology,
and migration barriers) of 5 reaches of the main stem of the river have also been
carried out.
Key principle 2. A sound evidence base is required to assess sources and
transport of diffuse pollution, accurately target measures and get stakeholder
buy-in. Following initial characterisation of the water bodies using historic data,
target total P loads to achieve good status for Rescobie and Balgavies Lochs have
82
been estimated as 210 kg P and 200 kg P respectively. Estimated loading reduction
requirements (from external and within-loch sources) to achieve these are 370 kg P
and 450 kg P respectively below current loadings. This has enabled us to estimate a
loading reduction target for each sub-catchment, assuming the uptake and release of
P by sediment is in balance. The baseline loading of sediment and P to the Lochs
from the monitored sub-catchments is being estimated using turbidity probes and
calibrated by storm event sampling. Following this period of baseline monitoring, the
effect of improved awareness and compliance with diffuse pollution regulations will
be assessed. The statistical analysis shows that around 100 events are required, for
a 25% reduction in “pollution” (as estimated by event turbidity loads) to be detectable
with a probability of 70%, across a pair of catchments (one “treated” with pollution
mitigation measures and one “control” after a baseline period). This observation
highlights the importance of use of simple monitoring devices such as turbidity
probes, which can capture multiple events cost effectively. Calibration of turbidity
against storm event chemistry samples will also allow estimates of pollutant loads
such as total P to be made, with uncertainties.
For the groundwater work, a catchment model has enabled better understanding of
the links between surface and groundwater to be made. Water balance data indicate
that groundwater leakage occurs at the sub-catchment scale, but is subsequently
returned to the river at the main Lunan catchment scale. The groundwater appears to
contribute between 10 and 20% of the total stream flow. The groundwater dating
work has provided evidence that, in some areas, reductions in nitrate pollution will
not be effective in ameliorating groundwater nitrate concentrations for a number of
years.
The rapid ecological appraisal has given evidence for a shortage of macrophytes in
the main stem of the river, better than expected river substrate and riparian
conditions, and major barriers to the migration of fish at Boysack and Friockheim.
Key principle 3. One-to-one advice and farm visits are essential to identify
hotspots, target measures and cost-effectively change management practices.
Contact with individual farmers is through an Environmental Focus Farm, Mains of
Balgavies (www.sac.ac.uk/mainrep/pdfs/infonote81envfocusfarm.pdf), as well as
through user focus group meetings, and annual public meetings. This is a key test of
the voluntary approach. Farm audits for a number of the farms have been completed,
focusing on the requirements of the new Diffuse Pollution General Binding Rules (DP
GBRs) for control of diffuse pollution under Controlled Activities Regulations, 2008
(CAR, www.opsi.gov.uk/legislation/scotland/ssi2008/ pdf/ssi_20080054_en.pdf), such
83
as storage and application of fertilisers; keeping of livestock; and cultivation of land.
The challenge now is to encourage the uptake of the DP GBRs, through the strategic
approach described above, across the catchment, and also to promote uptake of
voluntary measures that go beyond these rules on selected sub-catchments. A key
question is how far the DP GBRs, essentially a statutory baseline of good practice
which establish a level playing field for all farmers, can take us to achieving the load
reductions required.
Key principle 4. Partnership approaches and stakeholder involvement/lead are
helpful in delivering environmental improvements. The project was conceived as
a partnership between SEPA, SAC and MLURI, to provide the necessary
combination of regulatory, monitoring, farm advisory and catchment research
expertise. Throughout the project there has been regular engagement with
stakeholders, including a series of user group meetings. One of the key user groups
we have engaged with are the Rescobie Loch riparian owners group, who liaise
closely with fishing interests on the loch. This group have a strong interest in loch
quality, while in many cases also farming adjacent to the loch. In addition to the
agricultural sources of pollutants, septic tanks are a significant factor, and it has been
estimated there are over 800 in the whole catchment, contributing about 30% of the
estimated annual P load.
Key principle 5. A combination of regulatory, economic and voluntary
measures should be applied. The interaction with stakeholders and land users in
the catchment has highlighted the issues which affect the uptake of measures of all
types. Through regular engagement with farmers, it has been possible to agree
appropriate voluntary measures, such as modified cereal tramlines and reduced
cultivations to catch soil erosion, and improved nutrient budgeting and liming
practices to promote more efficient and uniform nutrient uptake by crops, and to carry
out pre- and post-implementation monitoring of watercourses. Auditing is now
assessing to what extent DP GBRs are being complied with on one of the sub-
catchments. The question remains: what is really needed to achieve uptake of
effective diffuse pollution mitigation measures on the ground, in an equitable and
cost:efficient way, and to ensure the catchment wide approach required?
For further information, see annual Lunan project reports for 2008 and 2009 at:
http://www.programme3.net/water/water345pollution.php
84
7.3 Water Resource Planning and Climate Change
Adaptation
Kemlo, Anne
Senior Consultant, Entec UK Ltd., London, UK; Email: [email protected];
Tel. +44 (0)207 843 1407
KEYWORDS: UKCP09; climate models; UKWIR; water resource modelling
ABSTRACT
The impact of climate change is considered by water companies in water resource
plans which are now a statutory requirement of the planning process. Draft plans
submitted in 2009 used climate change projections published in 2002 by the UK
Climate Impacts Programme (UKCIP02) and 2006 guidance from UK Water Industry
Research (UKWIR) to assess how supply and demand might be impacted over the
planning period to 2035. Since then new projections have been published - UKCP09,
giving much more detailed, probabilistic, information about climate change outcomes
over the next 90 years.
Entec have looked at how these new projections for rainfall and other climate
parameters can be used to assess the impact on deployable output and headroom
forecasts, for Dŵr Cymru Welsh Water and other companies. They used work done
by H R Wallingford for UKWIR in 2009 which allowed a simplified sampling approach
to determine a range of monthly flow or climate factors to apply to inflow sequences
used in resource zone modelling.
This paper will describe some of the modelling work carried out, discuss and
compare the results for deployable output and headroom from the work using UKWIR
06 in the draft Water Resource Plan with those using the new UKCP09 data, and
discuss the implications for future water resource planning.
85
8. Posters
8.1 Bangladesh Water Problems and Probable
Solutions
Akhter-Hamid S.*, Hamid F.** and Shelley M. R.†
*Dr. Akhter-Hamid S., Visiting Research Fellow, Department of Physics, Universiti
Malaya, Malaysia. +601 02167567(Mobile) & +603 79585667(Fixed line)
[email protected] & [email protected]
**Dr. Hamid F., Director, Molecular Technology Limited, Bangladesh.
†Dr. Shelley M. R., Chairman & Managing Director, Molecular Technology Limited,
Bangladesh
KEYWORDS: arsenic; water pollution
ABSTRACT
Bangladesh is heavily populated and has high levels of rural poverty. The fertile
soils of the Ganges, Brahmaputra and Meghna rivers (GBM) basin and delta are vital
to the largely agricultural economies, and are also the main source of water supply in
that region. It is now estimated that 97 percent of rural drinking and irrigation water
in Bangladesh are obtained from ground water by Shallow Tube Wells.
There are 68,000 villages in Bangladesh; it is now clear that the above mentioned
source of water in this area is contaminated with naturally occurring arsenic.
At present, the extensive extraction of ground water for irrigation and domestic water
supply is being questioned because of its extensive contamination with arsenic tri-
valent (Arsenic III) and penta-valent (Arsenic V) due to minerals originating in the
Himalayas.
Both organic and inorganic forms of arsenic exist in the environment. The most
important organic forms are arsenate, AsV (pH level less than 7.0) and arsenite,
AsIII (pH level less than 9.2). Arsenic is present in ground water in As (III) and As
(V) forms with different properties, and it is a major health concern in Bangladesh.
Arsenic poisoning in Bangladesh is between five parts per billion (.005ppb) and fifty
parts per billion (50ppb).
86
In the past three decades, the number of Shallow Tube Wells used for irrigation
purposes has increased dramatically in Bangladesh; in the dry season rice
production (Boro rice) depends heavily on Shallow Tube Wells. One research group
has examined the presence of inorganic arsenic (AsV and AsIII) in several food
samples from the market-places in Dhaka, Bangladesh after Islam and Mehag
(unpublished paper) examined a number of vegetables from Bangladesh indicating
that almost all arsenic was present in the inorganic form. The form and behavior of
arsenic varies greatly between flooded soils, such as paddy fields, and non-flooded
soils. The most important arsenic species are arsenate (AsV) under non-flooded
conditions and arsenite (AsIII) under flooded conditions.
Various reports indicate that soil concentrations are increasing because of arsenic
input via irrigation water, and this is a major concern. Also there is potential human
health risks in Bangladesh related to livestock and fresh water fisheries as these can
be exposed to arsenic via drinking water, pond water, and feeds if we extract huge
water from the ground.
Surface water is contaminated by different water born microbes and saline water
resulting from cyclones coming from the Bay of Bengal.
Many national and international arsenic removal projects are operating in
Bangladesh. Our recommendation is not to extract water from the ground; use
ponds and rivers water to solve these problems as until recently surface waters were
not contaminated by arsenic. Surface water does contain metals, minerals and
water born microbes and hence will need treatment prior to use. For the treatment of
surface water we may use two technologies: Epuramat Box4Water and Nano Fusion
Technology to clean water for drinking and household purposes. Irrigation,
meanwhile, demands that more ponds are dug and rivers dredged. Saline water or
brackish water caused by cyclones can be treated by Nano Fusion Technology.
87
8.2 Variation and Transformation of Particulate
Organic Carbon within the River Dee Basin, NE
Scotland
Dawson, JJC.*,†, Adhikari, YR**, Soulsby, C † and Stutter, MI*
*Macaulay Land Use Research Institute, Craigiebuckler, Aberdeen, AB15 8QH, UK
**Institute of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Aberdeen,
Cruickshank Building, St. Machar Drive, Aberdeen AB24 3UU, UK
†School of Geosciences, University of Aberdeen, St. Mary’s Building, Elphinstone
Road, Aberdeen AB24 3UF, UK
E-mail: [email protected], Tel: +44(0)1224 395163
KEYWORDS: Particulates, DOC, POC, River Dee, scaling
ABSTRACT
The transfer of dissolved and particulate matter in rivers from terrestrial
environments constitutes an important link in global biogeochemical cycles. Peat and
organo-mineral soils are particularly at risk of erosion in the UK (Towers et al., 2006)
and associated particulate forms of organic carbon (POC) fluxes are an important
component of total river carbon exports (Dawson et al., 2002; Stutter et al., 2008).
Moreover, POC in rivers are often overlooked as a pathway for carbon cycling
between catchment soils, the atmosphere and material ultimately transported to
oceans. Consequently, less is known about potential transformations of POC, which
govern its fate and interaction within the riverine environment. This preliminary study
evaluates variations in quantity and quality (biogeochemical reactivity) of particulate
material in headwaters, major tributaries and mainstem areas of an oligotrophic-
dominated river system.
Eleven sites draining nested catchments (5-1837 km2) in the River Dee basin were
sampled weekly in summer 2008 to assess spatial and temporal variability of
suspended particulate characteristics. Variability in particulate load and composition
and their relationship with land-use changes were determined using C:N ratios and
organic matter content; particulate respirable carbon, autotrophic organic matter
(chlorophyll content) and bioavailable-Phosphorus were used as indicators of
bioavailability.
88
Although base flow conditions predominated during the study, variations occurred
within measured parameters: the mean particulate concentration increased from
0.21-1.22 mg L-1 between the uppermost and lowest (121 km downstream)
mainstem site; dissolved organic carbon (DOC) concentrations were highest in
tributaries compared to mainstem sites, particularly from catchments containing
highest moorland coverage; particulate respirable carbon was highest during lower
flows and POC loads increased with relatively higher discharges. Relationships
between particulate respirable carbon, chlorophyll α and bioavailable-Phosphorus
and land use were negatively correlated (p<0.05) with moorland as quality of
particulate organic material became less recalcitrant, associated with increasing
biological productivity downstream (Stutter et al., 2007; Dawson et al., 2009).
Under relatively low flow conditions, inputs and in-stream processing of particulate
material appear to be related to contributory land use patterns that influence river
biogeochemistry within the River Dee basin as moorland influences decline and
arable and improved grasslands, become more important sources of dissolved and
particulate material.
REFERENCES
Dawson JJC, Billett MF, Neal C and Hill S (2002). A comparison of particulate,
dissolved and gaseous carbon in two contrasting upland streams in the UK.
Journal of Hydrology, 257, 226-246.
Dawson JJC, Soulsby C, Hrachowitz M, Speed M, Tetzlaff D (2009). Seasonality of
epCO2 at different scales along an integrated river continuum within the Dee Basin,
NE Scotland. Hydrological Processes, 23, 2929-2942.
Stutter MI, Langan SJ, Demars BOL (2007). River sediments provide a link between
catchment pressure and ecological status in a mixed land use Scottish River
system. Water Research, 41, 2803-2815.
Stutter MI, Langan SJ and Cooper RJ (2008). Spatial and temporal dynamics of
stream water particulate and dissolved N, P and C forms along a catchment
transect, NE Scotland. Journal of Hydrology, 350, 187-202.
Towers W, Grieve IC, Hudson G, Campbell CD, Lilly A, Davidson DA, Bacon JR,
Langan SJ and Hopkins DA (2006). Scotland’s Soil Resource - Current State and
Threats. Scottish Executive Environment and Rural Affairs Department (SEERAD),
Environmental Research Report 2006/01.
89
8.3 Traditional vs. Molecular Methods for the
Microbiological Analysis of Drinking Water
Al Saleh E.S.*, Drobiova H., Mohammad A., Taqi Z. and
Obuekwea C.
Microbiology Program, Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Science,
Kuwait University
*Correspondence to Esmaeil S. Al Saleh, Kuwait University, P.O.Box 5969, Safat
13060, Kuwait City, Kuwait. Tel: +96524985652, Fax: +96524847054;
email:[email protected]
KEYWORDS: Water analysis, Membrane filtration, 16S rRNA
ABSTRACT
The provision of high quality, germ-free drinking water requires regular monitoring of
the water supply system to avoid possible human-health related problems. In
general, total heterotrophic plate counts (HPC) may be used to represent the general
hygiene of water. High HPC could indicate the presence of pathogenic bacteria e.g.
coliforms. Almost all of the standard methods for testing drinking water samples are
culture-dependent methods that only detect microorganisms capable of utilizing
standard microbiological culture media. However, presence of viable unculturable
and not culturable microorganisms under standard monitoring conditions makes it
extremely important to employ techniques capable of detecting this fraction of water-
borne microorganisms.
Thus, the aim of the current study was to compare the outcome of applying traditional
microbiology techniques (culture-dependent) and molecular biology methods
(culture-independent). Culturable bacteria were detected by the membrane filtration
method using 0.45µm filters and R2A media for HPC. Growing bacterial cultures
were identified by sequencing of the 16S rRNA. On the other hand, the
unculturable/not culturable bacteria were detected by amplification of the 16S rRNA
from DNA samples extracted from the membrane filters followed by sequencing of
the amplified 16S rRNA genes. The results demonstrated the presence of
unculturable/not culturable bacteria such as Salmonella enterica, Corynebacterium
glutamicum, Brachybacterium faecium, Clostridium phytofermentans, Enterobacter
sp., Beutenbergia cavernae, Saccharomonospora viridis, Bacillus subtilis,
Fervidobacterium nodosum in some water samples. Occurrence of such diverse
90
bacteria - some of which are potentially pathogenic - in water samples, which were
not detected by traditional culture-dependent techniques, suggested that molecular
biology techniques are more sensitive and reliable than traditional methods.
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8.4 Disinfection of E. coli Contaminated Waters Using
Tungsten Trioxide-based Photoelectrocatalysis
Scott-Emuakpor E.O.*,**,1, Paton G.I.*, Todd M.** & Macphee
D.E.**
*Institute of Biological & Environmental Sciences, Cruickshank Building, University of
Aberdeen, Aberdeen. AB24 3UU
**School of Natural and Computing Sciences, University of Aberdeen, Meston Walk,
Aberdeen, AB24 3UE
1Corresponding Author: Efetobor O. Scott-Emuakpor, Institute of Biological &
Environmental Sciences, Cruickshank Building, University of Aberdeen, Aberdeen.
UK. AB24 3UU. E-mail: [email protected], Tel: +44 (0)1224272273
KEYWORDS: Tungsten trioxide, E. coli, Disinfection, Photoelectrocatalysis, Waste-
water.
ABSTRACT
The provision of safe drinking water is a major global challenge that has led to the
development of remediation strategies for disinfection of water-borne pathogens.
Currently, sustainable disinfection methods utilise solar energy for removal of
pathogens from contaminated waters. The disinfection efficiency of solar light may be
enhanced by addition of a semi-conductor oxide photocatalyst in the presence of
electron acceptors (O2 or H2O2) in an Advanced Oxidation Process (Rincón and
Pulgarin, 2003, 2004; Blanco et al., 2009). This disinfection mechanism is driven by
the catalytic formation of highly reactive hydroxyl radicals (HO·) that are toxic to
pathogenic bacteria. Oxidative attack damages cell membranes by lipid peroxidation
leading to further attack of internal cellular components resulting in cell death (Dunlop
et al., 2002; Rincón and Pulgarin, 2003).
One commonly used photocatalyst is titanium dioxide (TiO2). This has been
successfully used for both the degradation of organic contaminants (Pera-Titus et al.,
2004) and disinfection of pathogens (McCullagh et al., 2007). Titanium dioxide
utilizes near ultra-violet (UV) radiation (< 400 nm) but this cannot be an effective
photocatalyst for disinfection of pathogens unless there is ample irradiation time as
only a small percentage of solar energy is composed of UV light. Utilization of the
visible light spectrum optimizes the use of solar energy making the approach more
92
flexible and sustainable. The performance of TiO2 in visible light has been shown to
be less efficient when compared with a tungsten trioxide (WO3) photocatalyst, which
utilises approximately 30 % of solar radiation (Santato 2001; Sartoretti et al., 2005).
However, the disinfection of water-borne pathogenic bacteria using WO3 as a
photocatalyst has not previously been evaluated.
This study describes the disinfection of Escherichia coli using an immobilised thin film
tungsten trioxide (WO3) photocatalyst in a visible light-driven photoelectrocatalytic
batch cell (PECB). An assessment of the disinfection efficiency was monitored under
dark electrocatalytic, photolytic and photoelectrocatalytic conditions. Highest
disinfection efficiency occurred when the WO3 was illuminated under closed circuit
conditions as initial population densities (ca. 2 x 103 colony forming units/ml) of the
pathogen decreased by more than 99 % within 15 min. In this study, non detection of
colony forming units indicated cell death as post-irradiation studies (light switched off
for 22 hr) showed no resuscitation of the pathogen. Thus, the WO3 photocatalyst
enhanced E. coli disinfection with visible light. This is potentially an alternative
technology to TiO2 as its utilisation of visible parts of the solar spectrum optimizes the
use of solar energy in the treatment of contaminated waters.
REFERENCES
Blanco J., Malato S., Fernádez-Ibañez P., Alarćon D., Gernjak W. and Maldonado
M.I. (2009). Review of visible solar energy applications to water processes.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 13, 1437-1445.
Dunlop P.S.M., Byrne J.A., Manga N. and Eggins B.R. (2002). The photocatalytic
removal of bacterial pollutants from drinking water. Journal of Photochemistry and
Photobiology A: Chemistry, 148, 355–363.
McCullagh C., Robertson J.M.C., Bahnemann D.W and Robertson P.K.J. (2007). The
application of TiO2 photocatalysis for disinfection of water contaminated with
pathogenic micro-organisms: a review. Research on Chemical Intermediates, 33,
359-375.
Pera-Titus, M., Garcia-Molina, V., Baños, M. A., Giménez, J. and Esplugas, S.
(2004). Degradation of chlorophenols by means of advanced oxidation processes: a
general review. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 47, 219–256.
Rincón, A.G. and Pulgarin C. (2003). Photocatalytical inactivation of E. coli: effect of
(continuous–intermittent) light intensity and of (suspended–fixed) TiO2 concentration.
Applied Catalysis B: Environmental. 44, 263–284.
93
Rincón A.G. and Pulgarin C. (2004). Field solar E. coli inactivation in the absence
and presence of TiO2: is UV solar dose an appropriate parameter for standardisation
of water solar disinfection? Solar Energy, 77, 635–648.
Sartoretti C.J., Alexander B.D., Solarska R., Rutkowska, I.A., Augustynski J. and
Cerny R. (2005). Photoelectrochemical oxidation of water at transparent ferric oxide
film electrodes. Journal of Physical Chemistry B, 109, 13685-13692.
Santato C., Odziemkowski M., Ulmann M. and Augustynski J. (2001). Nanocrystaline
tungsten trioxide – A new photonic material. Journal of the American Chemical
Society, 123, 10639-10649.
94
8.5 Harvesting Rainwater Quality: a Case Study from
Jordan
Shatnawi, R.S.
Department of Civil Engineering. Applied Science University, Amman-Jordan; Email:
[email protected], [email protected], Tel: +962-65609999 ext. 1741,
fax: +962-65232899
KEYWORDS: harvested rainwater, quality, parameters, Jordan.
ABSTRACT
This study focused on testing some physical and chemical rooftop harvested
rainwater quality parameters at the Applied Science University Campus in Amman-
Jordan over two rainy seasons. The study findings indicated that rooftop harvested
rainwater quality was improved after filtration using two types of filters: a cartridge
type filter that is sold in the market and a hand made filter using available local
material (sand and gravel) as a filter medium. The treated rainwater quality matched
the Jordanian drinking water standards (JSTM 286/2008). This stresses the point that
the harvested rainwater could be used as a potable water source in water poor
countries like Jordan.
1. INTRODUCTION
Jordan is a country with few natural resources and a high population growth. This
combination renders Jordan susceptible to a broad spectrum of environmental
challenges. Jordan's principal environmental problem however is water scarcity. The
current per capita water consumption is estimated to be less than 150 m3/yr, which is
one of the lowest in the world. Jordan is one of the ten most water-deprived
countries, and the 4th poorest in the Arab world. Jordan is classified as an arid to
semi arid country where the average annual rainfall varies from 650 mm in the north-
western part of the country to less than 50 mm in the south-eastern part. The daily
per capita water consumption rate is quite low, and the cost of supplying water
continues to rise.
The study area is located at the Applied Science University (ASU) Campus in the
northern part of Amman, the capital of Jordan. The Campus experiences an average
annual rainfall of 650 mm. the climate is characterised as warm and dry in summer,
cold and wet in winter. The rainy season occurs between October and May.
95
This study aims to investigate the rooftop rainwater quality at ASU campus, focusing
on some physical and chemical water quality parameters, and studying the water
treatment options that could be used to treat rainwater for drinking purposes.
2. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Rooftop rainwater samples were collected during three rainy seasons; in 2007/2008,
2008/2009 and 2009/2010. Samples were taken from the rooftop of the Engineering
faculty at ASU.
A set of tests including a number of physical and chemical water quality parameters
were performed on the collected rainwater samples. Tests included pH, solids
concentration (Total Dissolved Solids and Total Suspended Solids (TDS and TSS)),
turbidity and jar test, total hardness, and alkalinity. Tests results have varied as will
be discussed in the coming section.
Filtration using a cartridge filter was used for 2007/2008 rainwater samples, and a
manually made filter using local material was used for 2008/2009 samples. This
filtration process was done in order to check the suitability of filtered rainwater for
drinking purposes.
3. RESEARCH FINDINGS
pH test
As shown in Figure 1, the pH values for rooftop rainwater samples varied between
6.6 and 6.8 for 2007/2008 rainy season and between 6.55 and 7.3 for 2008/2009
season.
Figure 1: pH of rooftop harvetsed rainwater samples in 2007/2008 and 2008/2009
rainy seasons.
96
Solids concentrations
Both Total Dissolved Solids (TDS) and Total Suspended Solids (TSS) were tested for
rooftop harvested rainwater samples. Results for TDS and TSS are shown in Figures
2 and 3 respectively have indicated a variation in solids concentration at different
seasons and at different times of sampling. For example for sample 4 in 2008/2009
TSS has pinned out rapidly due to the long dry period before the sample taken.
Figure 2: TDS (mg/l) of rooftop harvetsed rainwater samples in 2007/2008 and
2008/2009 rainy seasons.
Figure 3: TSS (mg/l) of rooftop harvetsed rainwater samples in 2007/2008 and
2008/2009 rainy seasons.
Turbidity test
Turbidity is defined as one of the water physical properties that is associated with the
presence of suspended solids (Hammer and Hammer, 2008). The highest the
97
concentration of suspended solids, the more turbid is the water. This relationship was
obtained from the rooftop rainwater samples t
Figure 4: Turbidity vs. Total Suspended Solids concentration of rooftop harvested
rainwater samples.
Alkalinity test
Alkalinity is one of the chemical properties of water that is associated with the
presence of OH-, CO3-2 and HCO3
- ions (Hammer and Hammer, 2008). Rooftop
harvested rainwater alkalinity was tested using titration technique with H2SO4 used
as a titrant. Average alkalinity for 2007/2008 rainwater samples was 344 mg/l as
CaCO3, whereas the 2008/2009 average value was 167.5 mg/l as CaCO3. It was
found that alkalinity of rainwater samples is mainly caused by the carbonate ion (CO3-
2). The alkalinity average values of 344 and 167.5 mg/l as CaCO3 mean that the CO3-
2 concentrations are 206.4 mg/l and 100.5 mg/l respectively.
Hardness test
Hardness is known as one of the chemical water properties that is due to the
existence of divalent cations; mainly Ca+2 and Mg+2 and to less extent Sr+2, Mn+2 and
Fe+2. Hardness classes range between soft with a total hardness < 75 mg/l as
CaCO3, and very hard with a total hardness of > 300 mg/l as CaCO3, (source).
Total hardness of both rooftop harvested rainwater and tap water samples was
measured using titration technique with EDTA used as a titrant. Results have shown
that the rooftop rainwater collected in 2007/2008 is classified as hard water with its
average total hardness 157.5 mg/l as CaCO3 (hard water: 150-300 mg/l as CaCO3).
The tap water’s total hardness was 100 mg/l as CaCO3 , classifying it as medium
water (medium water: 75-150 mg/l as CaCO3). Moreover, the 2008/2009 rainwater
98
samples were classified as hard water with an average total hardness of 217.5 mg/l
as CaCO3.
Further analyses were conducted for the 2008/2009 rainwater samples in order to
determine the concentrations of hardness causing cations; mainly Ca+2 and Mg+2.
Table 1 summarises the analyses results. Alkalinity is associated with water
hardness (Table 2).
Table 1: Summary of the hardness analyses of 2008/2009 rainwater samples.
sample Ca+2 hardness
(mg/l as
CaCO3)
[Ca+2] mg/l Mg+2 hardness
(mg/l as
CaCO3)
[Mg+2] mg/l
1 100 40 112.5 27
2 237 94.8 37.5 9
3 200 80 25 6
4 225 90 25 6
5 125 50 12.5 3
Table 2: Summary of the hardness components of 2008/2009 rainwater samples.
Sample
Total Hardness
(mg/l as CaCO3)
Alkalinity=Carbonate
hardness (mg/l as
CaCO3)
Non carbonate
hardness (mg/l as
CaCO3)
1 212.5 137.5 75
2 275 250 25
3 225 200 25
4 250 162.5 87.5
5 125 87.5 37.5
Total and Fecal coliform bacteria count
The multiple tube fermentation technique was used to test for total and fecal coliform
bacteria count for 2009/2010 rooftop harvested rainwater samples. Test results have
shown that the Most Probable Number (MPN/100ml) is 31/100 ml for total coliform
and <1.8/100ml for the fecal coliform (Escherichia coli) count. This MPN value is
higher than the acceptable limit of <1.2 according to the JSTM (286/2008). The
source of coliform bacteria is mainly the birds’ feces at the rooftops.
99
4. TREATMENT OF ROOFTOP HARVESTED RAINWATER
High solid concentrations and turbidity of rooftop harvested rainwater samples
indicate that treatment options like filtration could be an appropriate solution to
reduce the high concentrations to permissible levels according to the drinking water
standards.
Two filtration techniques were used for both 2007/2008 and 2008/2009 rooftop
harvested rainwater samples. In 2007/2008 the rainwater samples were filtered using
a manual cartridge type filter sold in the market (Kenwood). As shown in Figures 5
and 6 that the infiltration has improved the rainwater quality as both the TDS and
TSS concentrations have decreased.
Figure 5: Comparison (before and after filtration) of TDS of rooftop harvested
rainwater in 2007/2008.
Figure 6: Comparison (before and after filtration) of TSS of rooftop harvested
rainwater in 2007/2008.
The 2008/2009 rainwater samples were filtered using a manually hand made filter.
Local materials like sand and gravel were used in assembling the filter as shown in
Figure 7. Using such a filter reduces the turbidity and solids concentration of filtered
rainwater samples collected in 2008/2009 by an average of 50%.
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Figure 7: Illustration of the hand made filter assembly.
5. DISCUSSION
After testing the biological water quality it is recommended that filtered rainwater be
first disinfected if it is to be used for drinking or household purposes. Disinfection
could be achieved by boiling. Boiling does not have to be maintained for any length
of time – kettles with automatic shut-offs are suitable for this purpose. Boiling water
will kill any harmful bacteria, viruses or protozoa including Giardia and
Cryptosporidium. The water can then be cooled and stored in a clean container until
use.
Ultraviolet (UV) light radiation can be used to provide continuous assurance of water
quality. UV light systems require relatively low maintenance and have the advantage
of not involving addition of chemicals. The UV light could be installed in pipe work
delivering water from a tank to a dwelling or selectively to taps used to supply water
for drinking and food preparation. UV light systems could be particularly suitable for
community supplies. If UV light radiation is used, it is important to install a system
incorporating a sensor that indicates when the device is or is not operating. UV lamps
have a limited effective life and most need to be replaced after between nine and 12
months, (Thomas and Greene, 1993).
Chlorination to kill bacteria is widely recommended as a sterilisation for rainwater
collection systems (UNEP, 1998 and Macomber, 2001) but generally chlorinated
water is not well liked by users and the chemicals used can be dangerous if misused.
For this reason chlorination of the tank water is suggested only where one or more of
the following situations is present:
1. A known bacterial risk has been identified through water testing.
101
2. Individuals are getting sick as a result of drinking the water.
3. It is not feasible to completely empty a tank for cleaning.
4. An animal or fecal material has entered the tank.
Nevertheless, adding small quantities of chlorine to your water tank is the cheapest
and most effective means of disinfection.
According to Texas Water Development Board report in 2006 harvested rainwater is
recommended to be used indoors either for drinking or other purposes. Table 3 lists
the recommended method of rainwater treatment for indoor uses.
Table 3: Recommended treatment methods for indoor use of rainwater, (TWDB,
2006)
Treatment Methods for Non-Potable
Indoor Use of Rainwater
Treatment Methods for Potable Use
of Rainwater
Pre-filtration: First flush, roof washer, and/or
other appropriate pre-filtration method
Cartridge Filtration: 5 micron sediment filter
Disinfection: Chlorination with household
bleach or
Ultraviolet light
Pre-filtration: First flush, roof washer,
and/or other appropriate pre-filtration
method.
Storage: Storage of rainwater only in
tanks or cisterns approved for potable
use
Cartridge Filtration: 3 micron
sediment filter, followed by a 3 micron
activated carbon filter.
Disinfection: A chlorine residual of at
least 0.2 ppm maintained in the
distribution system at all times
Ultraviolet light for disinfection with a
dosage of 186 mJ/cm2 for virus
Inactivation.
6. CONCLUSIONS
102
The research was aimed at investigating some of the rooftop harvested rainwater
quality parameters. Test results have shown that the quality has improved after
filtration using cartridge and hand made filters. The filtered water quality show that
the rainwater is drinkable and could be used for other households purposes. In a
country like Jordan where the per capita water share is less than 150L/capita/day an
emphasis of using non conventional water resources like rainwater is highly
recommended. It is required to check the biological water quality parameters like the
coliform bacteria if the rainwater is to be used for drinking.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank Engineers Rami Asaad, Hisham Yousef and Yousef
AL-Bardawil for their efforts in data collection and also many thanks for Engineer
Nariman Alamri for her great help in the laboratory testing of the samples.
REFERENCES
Coombes, P., Kuczera, G., Kalma, J. (2000). Rainwater Quality from Roofs Tanks
and Hot Water Systems at Fig Tree Place. Proceedings of the 3rd International
Hydrology and Water Resources Symposium,Perth.
(http://rambler.newcastle.edu.au/%7Ecegak/Coombes/Hydro20003.htm)
Hammer, and Hammer, Jr., (2008),” Water Treatment and Technology”, Pearson
International, New Jersy.
Jordanian Drinking Water Standards no 286, (2008), “Jordanian Specifications and
Standards Associatio”, Amman-Jordan.
Macomber, Patricia S., 2001, Guidelines on rainwater catchment systems for Hawaii:
University of Hawaii at Manoa.
Otieno, F.A.O. (1994). Quantity and quality of runoff in Nairobi: the wasted resource.
In: Proceedings of the 6th international conference on rainwater catchment systems,
Nairobi, Kenya. Eds. Bambrah, G.K., Otieno, F.O., Thomas, D.B. pp 379-388.
Texas Water Development Board, (2006), “Rainwater Harvesting Potential and
Guidelines for Texas”, Austin, Texas.
Thomas, P.R., Greene, G.R. (1993). Rain water quality from different roof
catchments. Water Science Technology 28: 291-297.
UNEP (1998). Sourcebook of Alternative Technologies for Freshwater Augmentation,
United Nations Environment Programme, Nairobi.
(http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/TechPublications
103
8.6 Effects of Flow Conditions and System Geometry
on Ammonium Removal Rate and Ammonia Oxidizers
Community Structure in Benthic Biofilms
Yanuka K.*1, Arnon S.*, and Nejidat A.*
*Department of Environmental Hydrology & Microbiology, Zuckerberg Institute for
Water Research, J. Blaustein Institutes for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University
of the Negev, Israel
1 Details for contact author (Ben Gurion University of the Negev, Sede-Boqer
Campus, Student dormitory 37/3 84990, Israel. [email protected] Tel: 972-8-
6563510)
KEYWORDS: ammonia oxidizers, flow conditions, nitrification, nutrient cycling,
stream restoration.
ABSTRACT
Surface water bodies are under continuous environmental stress due to the release
of nitrogen compounds from anthropogenic activity. Nitrogen compounds, such as
ammonium and nitrate, cause eutrophication, acidification and hypoxia, leading to
toxicity of aquatic systems and biodiversity loss, and therefore their removal is one of
the major challenges as part of stream restoration efforts.
The objectives of this research were to test how overlying velocity affects ammonium
removal rates and the diversity and abundance of ammonia oxidizing bacteria (AOB).
In addition, we evaluated how differences in benthic physical features are influencing
nitrification potential as well as AOB community structure. The experiments were
conducted in a laboratory model of a stream system (flume). The flume has a
working channel of 260 cm long and 29 cm wide, and is equipped with a variable
speed pump to circulate the flow, a flow meter, light source, and a temperature
control system. The flume was packed with 5 cm of clean silica sand arranged into a
dune shape structure (bedforms), with heights of approximately 2 cm. Water depth
was maintained at 7 cm. An initial microbial seed, scraped from the bed of Habesor
River (Israel) was grown into a benthic biofilm under constant flow conditions and
feeding with ammonium. Over the course of more than 1 year we conducted several
experiments to measure ammonium removal rates, as well as nitrate and nitrite
production rates, under different overlying velocities (0.8-8 cm s-1). In addition, we
took sediments and biofilm samples to measure nitrification potential and the
104
diversity and abundance of nitrifying bacteria (using denaturing gradient gel
electrophoresis, DGGE, and quantitative real time PCR).
Ammonium removal increased monotonically when flow was changed from laminar to
turbulent conditions. However, under laminar flow conditions, ammonium removal
rates did not change with velocity, indicating that ammonium removal was strongly
controlled by mass transfer processes. Nitrate accumulation rates revealed that most
of the ammonium removal was due to nitrification, while denitrification in the system
was minimal. Nitrification activity was spatially distributed as a result of
physicochemical conditions. For example, evidence from the microscale distribution
of oxygen and pH (obtained with microelectrodes) indicated that nitrification was
limited to the upper 5 mm of the sediment bed. We also found that microbial
abundance and nitrification potential was not equal along the bedform structure. For
example, maximum nitrification rates were found at the upstream side of the
bedform. The results from this research emphasize the importance of the linkage
between the physical conditions and the biogeochemical processes in the
environment. We clearly show that different flow and sediment conditions can
promote specific microbial activity, such as nitrification. This understanding will aid in
the design of stream restoration schemes seeking to enhance the removal of excess
nitrogen as a crucial step in aquatic ecosystems management.
105
8.7 Determining the Trophic Structure and Water
Quality by Phytoplankton Composition and
Environmental Factors of Sazlıdere Dam (Istanbul,
Turkey) - a Drinking Water Source
Yılmaz, N.
Istanbul University, Fisheries Faculty, Department of Freshwater Biology, Ordu St.
No: 200 Laleli/ Istanbul. Tel: +90 (212) 455 57 00; Fax: +90 (212) 514 03 79;
KEYWORDS: Water quality, phytoplankton, nutrients, trophic structure, Sazlıdere
Dam
ABSTRACT
The seasonal variation of phytoplankton and the influencing physicochemical factors
of Sazlıdere Dam were investigated from December 2003 to November 2005. A total
of 67 taxa were identified, belonging to 7 divisions: Bacillariophyta (31), Chlorophyta
(18), Cyanophyta (9), Euglenophyta (4), Dinophyta (3), Chrysophyta (1) and
Cryptophyta (1). The seasonal variation of phytoplankton were most affected by light,
temperature and nutrients. A highly significant positive correlation (r=0.667) existed
between phytoplankton density and orthophosphate concentrations. There was very
low positive correlation (r=0.167) between phytoplankton density and nitrate
concentrations. During the study, water temperature varied between 5.6 and 29.0 ºC,
salinity 0.1- 0.4 %o and total hardness 11.04- 28.80 ºFS. The dissolved oxygen
concentrations ranged from 4.58 to 14.97 mg l-1 and pH values ranged between 6.60-
8.52. The nitrite, nitrate and orthophosphate values were between 0.52- 15.24 µg l-1;
0.09- 58.48 µg l-1 and 0.02- 31.7 µg l-1 respectively. According to regulations for the
water quality of potable water, in terms of temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, nitrate,
nitrite and orthophosphate concentrations, Sazlıdere Dam is in Class I. Chlorophyll- a
values (5.47- 57.0 mg/m3) showed that the lake is eutrophic. The obtained data
indicated that the lake is changing from oligotrophic to mesotrophic.
106
9. Workshops
One workshop was held on the final day of the conference. The aim of the workshop
was to stimulate further discussion between conference delegates based upon the
oral and poster presentations provided in earlier sessions, leading to idea exchange,
new collaborations and the generation of new research themes.
The broad workshop theme centred on global water quality: the big issues in a
changing environment. This session sought to identify the top 10 water quality issues
that are of global concern due to a population growth, changing patterns of water use
and climate change. Workshop participants were asked to suggest more specific
topics for discussion, leading to prioritisation and collective agreement. Topics tabled
during the workshop included: changing agricultural practices, water supply issues,
rainwater harvesting or water reuse, energy costs associated with improving water
quality, etc. A shortlist of 10 questions was eventually selected from over 70
suggested by the workshop participants. All questions/topics suggested at the
workshop have been included in an online survey
(http://www.surveymonkey.com/s/waterquality2010): all conference participants are
invited to take part and we hope that this may lead to a conference paper for
submission to a peer-reviewed journal.
A key feature of the workshops was to build collaboration between delegates. Within
the delegate pack was a sheet which asked delegates to suggest new
collaborations. A few forms were returned and the suggestions are tabulated below.
Please contact the conference secretariat if any of the collaborations are of interest
and we will ensure that you are put into contact with the relevant individual/group.
Topic Details (if provided)
Pesticide modelling Seeking modelling capability for pesticides asdiffuse pollution
Arsenic & salt in water Removal of arsenic and desalination for drinkingwater
Low energy/cost treatment Facilitate collaboration for low energy/cost in waterand wastewater treatment
Holistic approach Interdisciplinary research for water quality
Stream restoration Nutrient removal strategies
107
10. Exhibitors at Water Quality 2010
YSI Hydrodata- monitoring to protect the world's water
YSI Hydrodata is a subsidiary of YSI Incorporated, aglobal business committed to sustaining the qualityand viability of the Earth's water resources with theworld's most accurate and reliable water quality andhydrology measurement technologies.
Located in Letchworth, UK, YSI Hydrodata distributes YSIand SonTek instruments and monitoring systems,providing training, installation, service, repair andcalibration support services in addition to a full range ofrental products.
The company's highly experienced and qualified engineersalso provide monitoring services for water quality andhydrology.
SonTek products provide complementary water quantitymonitoring capabilities (such as flow, velocity, and depth)to YSI's water quality monitoring portfolio.
Founded in 1948, YSI is an employee-owned companyand enjoys a worldwide reputation for rugged instrumentsthat provide accurate reliable data in even the mostremote environments.
The YSI product portfolio includes advanced sensortechnologies, handheld meters, multiparameter sondes,buoys and floating platforms, customised monitoringsystems and networks, laboratory instruments and mostrecently a remote control autonomous underwater vehiclefor water quality and bathymetry mapping.
Typical monitoring applications for YSI products includerivers, lakes, reservoirs, groundwater, marine,aquaculture, drinking water and wastewater.
For further information visit:www.ysi.comwww.SonTek.com
www.ysihydrodata.com
108
RS Hydro provide exceptional technology based consultancy and support services
for the water & wastewater, power generation, mining & aggregates, environmental,
petrochemical and food industries for the UK and worldwide. We are specialists in
water quality instrumentation, level measurement, ultrasonic flow meters and non
invasive flow measurement.
Our water quality instruments range from a versatile multi parameter sonde, single
smart level sensors, handheld meters and wastewater samplers.
The Manta 2 is an easy to use, low maintenance sonde which can
measure level, turbidity, dissolved oxygen, conductivity, pH, ORP /
Redox, temperature, nitrate, chloride and ammonium. Its improved
capabilities allow it to be utilised in the marine industry for
measuring Chlorophyll a, Blue Green Algae and Rhodamine.
Our smart level sensors are extremely practical for borehole,
groundwater and waste water applications. They can be either
cabled or cableless and for longevity and sustainability coated with
either stainless steel or titanium. It comes with field serviceable
parts including replaceable batteries. Its non-volatile memory allows
for secure data logging with the flexibility to pause or delay logging
times.
Our portable hand held devices allow for immediate results. With
the ability to measure 5 parameters at once with an Orion 5 star or
a simpler approach can be used measuring single parameters with
an Orion 3 star. Each unit comes with a carry case for easy
storage and carriage.
RS Hydro supply the full range of Isco Teledyne water
samplers. Isco have an unparalleled reputation in the
industry. For the last fifty years they've been leading the way
with advancements in water sampling technology, including
the first outdoor refrigerated sampler, first non-contacting
liquid detector and first sampler with interchangeable
modules for measuring parameters (including flow).
Leask House, Hanbury Road, Stoke Prior, Bromsgrove, B60 4JZwww.rshydro.co.uk Tel: +44 (0) 1527 882 060
109
Delegate List
Delegate name Affiliation
Abra, Jonathan C-Tech Innovation, UK
Ackacha, MA Sebha University, Libya
Adams, David University of Leeds, UK
Akhter-Hamid, F. Marketable Value, Malaysia
Akhter-Hamid, S University of Malaysia
Asghar, HMA University of Manchester, UK
Assayed, Almoayied University of Surrey, UK
Beat, Gavin British Waterways, UK
Bogush, AA Institute of Geology & Mineralogy SB RAS, Russia
Bowman, Samantha University of Leeds, UK
Cadavid, Luz Stella University of Leeds, UK
Camargo-Valero, Miller University of Leeds, UK
Cauchi, Michael Cranfield University, UK
Chen, Xiaoyan Zhejiang University, China
Coelhan, Mehmet Technische Universität Mϋnchen, Germany
Cornwell, Neill YSI Hydrodata, UK
Crabtree, B. WRc Ltd., UK
Czapar, George University of Illinois, USA
Dawson, Julian Macauley Land Use Research Institute, UK
Deasy, Clare Lancaster University, UK
Elwell, Frances Mott MacDonald, UK
Grayson, Richard University of Leeds, UK
Hanson, Darren YSI Hydrodata, UK
Harris, Bob Defra/University of Sheffield, UK
Hewitt, Laura RS Hydro, UK
Holden, Joseph University of Leeds, UK
Horan, Nigel University of Leeds, UK
Howden, NJK University of Bristol, UK
Hussein, Syed Nadir University of Manchester, UK
Hutchins, MG CEH Wallingford, UK
Kay, Paul University of Leeds, UK
Kemlo, Anne Entec UK
Kouzayha, A. Lebanese Atomic Energy Commission, Beirut
110
Lalung, Japareng University of Leeds, UK
Lang, Ed RS Hydro, UK
Liu Hui Peking University, China
McDonald, Adrian University of Leeds, UK
Marshall, Jim Water UK, UK
Mohammad, Abdullah Kuwait University
Noakes, Catherine University of Leeds, UK
Palmer-Felgate, Elizabeth CEH Wallingford, UK
Pardakhti, Alireza University of Tehran, Iran
Payne, Michael Michael Payne Environmental Consultants, UK
Ramchunder, Sorain University of Leeds, UK
Scott-Emuakpor, EO University of Aberdeen, UK
Shatnawi, Rania Applied Science University, Jordan
Slack, Rebecca University of Leeds, UK
Svensson, Kennet Komlan Konsult
Vinten, A Macauley Land Use Research Institute, UK
Virden, David University of Leeds/Yorkshire Water, UK
Wang, Hang Zhejiang University, China
Williams, Richard CEH Wallingford, UK
Yanuka, Keren Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel
Yilmaz, Neşe Istanbul University, Turkey
Zhang, Zhijian Zhejiang University, China
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Conference Secretariat & Committee
The Water Quality ConferenceChairs:
Professor Joseph Holdenwater@leeds DirectorSchool of GeographyUniversity of LeedsLeeds, UKLS2 9JT
Dr George CzaparExtension Educator, Integrated PestManagementUniversity of Illinois ExtensionP.O. Box 8199Springfield, IL 62791USA
Dr Zhijian ZhangAssociate Professor, College ofEnvironmental and ResourcesSciencesResearch Center of Eco-environmental SciencesZhejiang UniversityKuanxian 268, Hangzhou, Zhejiang310029P.R.China
Water Quality Network Members atthe University of Leeds:
Dr Robert MortimerSenior Lecturer: EnvironmentalGeochemistrySchool of Earth and Environment
Dr Nigel HoranReader in Public Health EngineeringSchool of Civil Engineering
Emeritus Professor Mike KirkbySchool of Geography
Dr Sheila PalmerLecturer in Soil BiogeochemistrySchool of Geography
Dr Clare WouldsLecturer in Water, Soil and CarbonInteractionsSchool of Geography
Dr Pippa ChapmanLecturer in Physical GeographySchool of Geography
Conference Secretariat/Technical Organisers:
Dr Rebecca Slackwater@leedsSchool of GeographyUniversity of LeedsLeeds, UKLS2 9JTEmail: [email protected]. +44 (0)113 343 3373
Samantha BowmanResearch Cluster Support AssistantSchool of GeographyUniversity of LeedsLeeds, UKLS2 9JTEmail: [email protected]: +44 (0)113 343 8246
