Topic 2 period of colonisation and struggle for independence

TTooppiicc 22 Period of Colonisation and Struggle for Independence

LEARNING OUTCOMES

By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Identify the foreign powers that had once colonised our country; 2. Identify the effects of the colonisation with the current socio-

economic and political system; 3. Analyse the resistance concept of the Malayan Union or „Kesatuan

Malaya‰ by the Malay race; 4. Assess the main reasons why the citizens opposed national political

and economical administration by foreign powers; 5. Identify nationalist movements that rose against the British colonists; 6. Analyse the processes involved in getting independence for the

Malay Peninsular; 7. Interpret factors that pushed forward the idea to form Malaysia; and 8. Evaluate the main factors of the many reactions to the forming of

Malaysia.

TOPIC 2 PERIOD OF COLONISATION AND STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE 20

INTRODUCTION

In general, this topic discusses the scene of our country since the period of colonisation up to the birth of the struggle to seek independence. The areas discussed in this topic are, amongst others, the factors that influenced foreign powers to colonise our country; the reaction of the citizens towards that colonisation; and the effect of the colonisation on our country. The focus on colonisation begins with the colonisation by the Portuguese, the Dutch, English and lastly the Japanese. And from the beginning colonisation is focused on Malacca and thereafter linked in general to other states, such as Penang Island, Singapore, Kedah, Perak, Selangor, Negeri Sembilan, Sabah and Sarawak. Among the main factors for colonisation by these foreign powers were the factor of the countryÊs location and wealth. From the perspective of the citizenÊs reaction, you are brought to understand the reaction of the citizens of Malaysia towards the colonisation by foreign powers. This reaction reached its peak, for instance, with the murder of J.W.W. Birch in Perak, the resistance by Tok Bahaman and Mat Kilau in Pahang, the resistance by Mat Saleh in Sabah, and the awakening of the national spirit after the Japanese colonisation. Lastly, from the perspective of the effects of the colonisation, you are brought to analyse the effects of the colonisation on the national political and administrative system, national economic system, national education system and the citizen's way of life as a whole.

FACTORS INFLUENCING COLONISATION 2.1

Colonisation by foreign powers in our country resulted in various effects that shaped the society's political, economic, social and cultural system. Colonisation has brought effects to the adaptation and assimilation process among society. Based on this, how far have these effects conferred benefits that have changed the structure of the societyÊs thinking? There are two main factors that influenced foreign powers to colonise Malaya. We can divide those factors into two, that is:

(a) Strategic location; and

(b) National wealth.


2.1.1 Strategic Location

It should be known that at the beginning, the arrival of foreign powers to Malaya was merely as traders who traded together in the states of Malaya. However, due to the numerous weaknesses and problems in the Malay states, these foreign powers took the opportunity to colonise our country. In addition, the foreign powers did indeed have key reasons to colonise South East Asian countries. Among those reasons were, firstly their attempt to expand its territory that could provide raw materials, and secondly to spread Christianity. From the perspective of location, Malaya was situated in a strategic location. Malacca, at its glory days, was the entreport that linked the trading world of the western world with the eastern world. Malacca was in the centre of the trading path between the Western, Arab and Indian traders on the western side and Chinese traders on the eastern side (see Figure 2.1).

Figure 2.1: Malacca as the Eastern Trade Centre

Source: Mohd. Jamil Mukmin, 1994, Malacca as the Centre for the Spread of Islam in the Nusantara, Nurin Enterprise, Kuala Lumpur


2.1.2 The Malay Malacca Sultanate: Factors of Development

The strategic location was also assisted by numerous other factors. Let us look at the factors that contributed to the development and supremacy of the Malay Government. (a) Political and Administrative Factors

(i) The Malacca Government had prominent leaders that were competent in preserving and ensuring the stateÊs administration and peace, such as Parameswara, Sultan Muzaffar Syah, Sultan Alauddin Riayat Syah, Sultan Mahmud Syah, Bendahara Tun Perak, and Laksamana Hang Tuah.

(ii) MalaccaÊs diplomatic relationship and foreign policy with Siam, Majapahit and China Government resulted in positive effects to the development of Malacca from the economic and political perspective. From the political perspective, the favourable diplomatic relationship with China resulted in MalaccaÊs freedom from foreign government threats in Nusantara.

(iii) The just legal system, such as the Hukum Kanun Melaka (Laws of Malacca) and the Undang-Undang Laut (Maritime Laws of Malacca) that were compiled and updated by Sultan Muzaffar Syah demonstrated that the rulers strived to preserve peace in Malacca, which was the largest and most well-known trading centre. In actual fact, the safety of the foreign traders was more assured.

(iv) Matters relating to the management of MalaccaÊs trade and port were controlled and supervised by a Shahbandar. The SyahbandarÊs power and authority in overseeing shipping matters is a factor that helped towards the Malaccan economic growth. This is as well as the strong military forces.

(v) Pirate activities were eradicated by the strong military forces and expansion of power towards other states in the whole of Peninsular Malaya. This as a whole was able to widen trade within the region.

(b) Geographical Factor

(i) Malacca emerged as the most important entreport trade centre in the region because of its position between Hindi Sea and the South China Sea protected from the South Western winds and the North Eastern monsoon. This became a factor that encouraged international navigation.


(ii) Malacca had a deep port that was very suitable for ships to anchor and trade.

(c) Economic Factor

(i) Political and geographical factors also assisted Malacca in becoming the central focus of economic activities. Malacca was able to provide facilities that encouraged economic growth, such as spice trading and centre of trade for goods from China, India, Arab countries and Europe.

(ii) Rulers introduced the use of its own system of currency in trade dealings. This simplified the execution of trading activities.

(iii) The Malacca Government also established a good tax collection system and it was accepted by the foreign traders.

(d) Social Factor

(i) The education aspect was given emphasis by the Malaccan rulers. MalaccaÊs position as the centre of knowledge was closely linked with the Malaccan rulers who extremely respected and bestowed prominent positions to the theologian group. Sultan Mansur Syah, for example studied with Kadi Yusuf and encouraged the Al-Quran to be written in the Malay language.

(ii) The arrival of Islam vastly changed the social system of the Malay society. Equality, brotherhood among religions and world Islam unity were the values instilled in the Malay societyÊs way of life in Malacca and the entire Malay universe. The concepts of respect, cooperation, helping and working together among one another were characteristics instilled in Islam.

(e) Cultural Factors

(i) Malacca, as the centre for the spread of Islam, was able to further encourage growth in trading with Muslim traders from India and Arab countries.

(ii) The Malay language was widely used as the medium language or „Lingua Franca‰. The use of the Malay language in the studies of academic characteristics, production of literary works, area of administration and its relationship with the foreign powers increased its influence.


COLONISATION PERIOD 2.2

2.2.1 Portuguese Colonisation

Did you know that the MalaccaÊs colonisation by the Portuguese took a period of 130 years? The colonisation began in the year 1511 until the year 1641. Even though it took a very long time to colonise Malacca, the Portuguese did not succeed in expanding its influence, especially in controlling the spice trade in Malacca Port. The efforts made to capture Naning and Rembau, for example, failed. Their influence was only around the city of Malacca. Their main objective, to spread Christianity, was also unsuccessful.

2.2.2 Dutch Colonisation

Initially, the arrival of the Dutch colonialists in Malaya was to trade in the Malay Islands. During the 17th century, Betawi (Jakarta), centred in Jawa, was the main trade centre. The Dutch East India Company was established in the year 1602 with the purpose of:

(a) Controlling the spice trade in the Malay Islands; and

(b) Monopolising the tin ore trade in the Malay states. To fulfil this desire, the Dutch put an end to Portuguese control in Malacca with the aim of attracting traders to Betawi. In the year 1641, the Portuguese were defeated with the assistance of the Johor government. However, as with the Portuguese, the Dutch did not leave behind a deep historical legacy in Malaysia. The power struggle between the colonial powers illustrates that the Malay states were desired by the Western powers. The most important factor was the aim to exploit the economic resources in the Malay islands.

2.2.3 British Colonisation

In the year 1600, British traders established the English East India Company to smoothen trade with China. Thereafter, the said Company became interested with the Malay Islands. The arrival of Francis Light on 11 August 1786 at Penang Island and the arrival of Stamford Raffles on 6 February 1819 in Singapore had great influence in the shaping of the history of Malaya. It is here that the English began their attempts to control the whole of Malaya.


After being in the Straits Settlement, the British extended their control to the other states in the Peninsular, Sabah and Sarawak. The purpose of the English extending their control in this territory clearly had an economic motive. This became easier to accomplish as at that time, there were internal problems taking place in the relevant states. It has been recognised that the interference by the English in numerous internal problem matters encouraged the English to further extend their control to Peninsular Malaya, Sabah and Sarawak (refer to Table 2.1).

Table 2.1: Chronology of the British Colonisation in Malaya

Year Event 1786 Occupied Penang Island 1819 Occupied Singapore 1824 Acquired Malacca through the Anglo-Dutch Treaty 1874 British interference in Perak, Selangor accepts British Advisor, British

interference in Sungai Ujong 1875 The Sultan of Brunei surrenders his rights in Sabah to the British 1878 Sultan of Brunei surrenders his area in Sabah to the British 1888 The beginning of the British interference in Pahang 1895 Formation of the Federation of Malay States (Selangor, Perak, Pahang and

Negeri Sembilan) through the Federation Treaty 1909 Following the Bangkok Treaty, Siam surrenders Kedah, Perlis, Kelantan and

Terengganu to the British (Unfederated Malay States) 1909 Formation of the Federation Meeting Council 1914 Johor accepts a British Advisor 1945 Forming of the British Military Army (BMA) 1946 Forming of the Malayan Union 1948 Forming of the Federation of Malaya

INITIAL REACTION OF THE LOCAL POPULATION

2.3

2.3.1 Reaction towards Western Colonisation

Western colonisation, in actual fact, did not please the Malays. Did you know that the resistance against the western powers started since the Portugese began to conquer Malacca? The Johor nobility, for example, attempted numerous times to liberate Malacca from the rule of the Portuguese. Also, similar resistance was given to the Dutch. Strong reaction was also shown to the British colonialisation that began since the year 1874. Interference by the English in the administration of the Malay rulers in Malaya, and the conquest of North Borneo, encouraged open resistance. In Naning, for example, Dol Said lead the resistance against the English


administration; DatoÊ Maharajalela headed the murder of J.W.W Birch in Perak; Sharif Masahor, Rentap and Banting in Sarawak, Mat Salleh in Sabah; DatoÊ Bahaman in Pahang; Tok Janggut in Kelantan; and Abdul Rahman Limbong in Terengganu. The peak of the resistance happened after the World War II, that is after the defeat of the Japanese. The British army arrived to restore the status quo prior to World War II. A form of military administration named the British Military Administration (BMA) was established. In spite of this, the BMA was unable to restore peace. In the end, the British made efforts to re-establish public administration. Their purpose was to establish a strong administrative centre. In March 1946, the BMA was dissolved. A new government that was known as the Malayan Union or Kesatuan Malaya was established. Let us examine why the Parliament of Britain announced the establishment of the Malayan Union. Among its purposes were to:

(a) Establish a strong and efficient rule through the integration of all existing administrations;

(b) Coordinate a defence system which is effective and in order; and

(c) Increase production of rubber and tin ore for the economic benefit of the British empire.

For your information, the characteristics of the Malayan Union, among others, were:

(i) Singapore was to be separated from the Malayan Union and designated as a Crown Colony.

(ii) All the states in Malaya were to become British Colonies and led by a Governor.

(iii) The Governor of the Malayan Union was to be placed under the control of the Governor General in Singapore.

(iv) The Governor was to be given full authority, including veto power, except in the Legislative Council, which was established at central level.

(v) Members of the Legislative Council were to be appointed by the Governor, comprised of official and unofficial representatives of equal amounts.

(vi) The Malay rulers were to relinquish control, except in matters relating to Islam and Malay culture.

(vii) Citizenship was to be based on the principle of jus soli. This principle enabled anyone to become a citizen after residing in this country for 10 years.


Did you know that the incident where the Sultans were forced to sign the Malayan Union Plan agreement raised resentment of the Malays? They regarded the British colonisers as insulting the Malay Rulers. They were also worried that the position of the Rulers and people would be threatened. Among the manifestos of the objections of the public against the establishment of the Malayan Union were:

• The Pan-Malay (Melayu Se-Malaya) Congress chaired by Dato Onn bin Jaafar had its emergency meeting in Kuala Lumpur. The said meeting was attended by 41 Malay organisations.

• All the Malay rulers were urged not to attend the gathering for the officiating and appointment of the Malayan Union Governor.

• The Malay community was urged to mourn for seven days.

• A public get together by the Malays was held in many of the main cities such as Johor Bahru, Kuala Lumpur and Alor Setar.

• The Malay dignitaries boycotted the official British assemblies.

• The Malay leaders formed the United Malay National Organisation (UMNO) to protect the interest of the Malays.

UMNO continued to insist on the withdrawal of the Malayan Union. The British government began to worry that chaos would ensue if immediate actions were not taken. The English government discovered that the Sultans and the Malayan dignitaries would continue not to support them. In addition to that, many Chinese and Indian leaders also shunned the Council for the Declaration of the Malayan Union. At the end, the British were forced to accept defeat and the Malayan Union was dissolved. At that time, the Malayan Union was merely four months old.

REACTION TOWARDS THE JAPANESE COLONISATION

2.4

To what extent do you agree that the Japanese occupation in Malaya from 1941 until 1945 greatly affected the development of national spirit and subsequently contributed to the nationÊs independence? The resistance towards the Japanese administration in this country was demonstrated through numerous acts. The Communist Party of Malaya, which comprised a large number of Chinese, had established the Malayan People Anti Japanese Army (MPAJA). In Pahang, the Malays established the Tentera Wataniah Pahang. Ex-British officers that were hiding in the jungle established the Special Training School (Sekolah Latihan Khas) 101 to train local citizens to use


firearms. Meanwhile, the local citizens participated in Force 136 under the leadership of Captain Spencer Chapman. The Askar Melayu Setia military unit was established in Perak in the year 1945 which was lead by Captain Mohd. Salleh bin Haji Sulaiman. The said military units had launched numerous attacks on the Japanese army. You should also know that the citizens in Sabah and Sarawak also faced pressure from the Japanese colonisation. In Sabah and Sarawak, the Chinese worked together with the Bumiputras to oppose the Japanese. From all this, we are able to see that every invader that arrived and occupied this country faced resistance from the local citizens.

EFFECTS OF COLONISATION 2.5

2.5.1 Effects of Portuguese Colonisation

Amongst the effects left behind by the Portuguese colonisation till today are the:

(a) Existence of the Eurasian society as a result of marriages between the Portuguese and the local citizens.

(b) Introduction of the Romanised alphabets to the Malay society.

(c) Existence of Malay words originating from the Portuguese language (such as palsu, almari, jendela, garpu and tuala).

(d) Significant outcome was the fall of the Malay Malacca Sultanate which led to the existence of the Malay Riau Kingdom.

2.5.2 Effects of British Colonisation

There are many effects of British Colonisation:

(a) Composition of Population From the aspect of the populationÊs composition, our country was left to

carry the burden of having inhabitants of various races. By opening the rubber estates and tin ore mines, the British colonialists had greatly encouraged the entry of migrants from China and India. This resulted in the rapid increase in population. The migrants that had newly arrived differed from the aspect of their culture and economic activities as compared to the local citizens. For example, the Chinese controlled the modern sectors in the cities and the mining area, the Indians controlled the agricultural sector and lived in estates, and the Malays controlled the traditional farming sector and


lived in the rural areas. The differences between these groups created a social divide that was marked by racial sensitivity and prejudices. This was indeed what the colonialists intended as, with the existence of disharmony among the citizens, it would be easy for the British to rule and thereafter exploit the nationÊs economy.

(b) Political System From the political aspect, the societyÊs system, which was once loyalty and

service under the rule of the rulers and Sultan changed with the interference of the British. The power of the rulers and Sultans were reduced to a level that they were only symbolic figureheads to the state or country. It began with the introduction of the resident system in the Federation of Malay States and subsequently by the system of British advisors in the Unfederated Malay States. Both these systems began to reduce the ruling powers of the Malay rulers and officials. The function of the British resident and advisor was to advise the Malay rulers, which had been previously done by the Malay officials.

2.5.3 Effects of Japanese Colonisation

The World War II altered the scene of the Western colonisation in Malaya. Japan aimed to control and liberates Asian countries from the clutches of the colonisation of the Western powers. The Japanese colonisation in Malaya and Singapore started on 15 February until 12 September 1945. The bombing of the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki by the American army resulted in the Japanese surrender. This incident caused the British to return to Malaya in September 1945. Subsequently, numerous eventful incidents took place:

(a) The British established the British Military Army (BMA);

(b) The Malayan Union was established; and

(c) The Communist Party of Malaya became more active until the British were forced to declare a state of emergency in Malaya on 17 June 1948.

For approximately three and a half years the Japanese occupation in Malaya left behind many negative and positive effects, which include:

(i) Malaya was placed under the control of the Japanese military administration with its centre in Singapore.

(ii) Singapore was separated from the administration in Malaya.

(iii) The Chinese people in Malaya had been suppressed by the Japanese, whereas the Malays had received a more favourable treatment. This raised


the resentment of the Chinese people towards the Malays and hostilities began to simmer.

(iv) Greater political awareness existed among the Malays.

(v) Confidence for self-rule among the Malays arose as a result of the experience derived from the Japanese administrative work.

(vi) The Chinese and Indians in Malaya became more enthusiastic/active in strengthening their identities and roots.

(vii) Hostility between the Malays and the Chinese as a result of the Japanese occupation stirred up the spirit of the Malay Congress.

(viii) The Communist Party of Malaya became the strongest party from 1945 1948.

STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE

Since Malaysia had been occupied and colonised by several foreign powers, efforts to free her were undertaken in earnest. We will view the efforts carried out by various parties to free the country from the spectre of colonialism and thus, independence. Among the things that you will come across is the birth of nationalistic sentiment, the struggle against colonialism, emergence of political parties, negotiations for independence and the forming of Malaysia.

2.6.1 The Rise of Nationalism

Do you know that national spirit or nationalism refers to a sense of confidence in efforts to uphold autonomy, unity and privacy for a social segment to form a nation? Any basic group of unity, racial, historical experience, language, or even religious similarities can be the foundation to a national spirit movement.

2.6

1. In your opinion, what are the factors that caused Malacca to achieve its glory in the 16th century A.D. until it was envied by foreign powers?

2. The invasion by the Japanese Army from 1942 to 1945 was a blessing in disguise to the citizens of Malaysia. Analyse this statement based on suitable examples.

ACTIVITY 2.1


We should be aware that national movements before the World War II in the Malay Peninsular was heavily influenced by the success of the Japanese in defeating Russia in the Russo-Japan War. At the same time, the struggle of Indonesian nationalists against the Dutch was a boost to the nationalists in the Malay Peninsular. The Young Turks Movement led by Mustafa Kamal was also an inspiration in the struggle for independence. National spirit in the Malay Peninsular in the early 20th century was largely stirred by the media, through publications such as newspapers and magazines (refer to Table 2.2). The media gave lots of opportunities to the public to submit and receive important information from leaders.

Table 2.2: A list of influential newspapers

Newspaper Founder Year and Venue of

Publication

Al-Imam Utusan Melayu Neracha Saudara Warta Malaya Majlis

Syed Syeikh al-Hadi Abdul Rahim Kajai Haji Abas Taha Syed Syeikh al-Hadi DatoÊ Onn Jaafar Abdul Rahim Kajai

1906, Singapore 1907, Singapore 1911, Singapore 1928, Penang 1930, Singapore 1931, Kuala Lumpur

ORGANISED MOVEMENTS RESISTING COLONIALISM

2.7

Let us now look at the organised movement scenario in efforts to fan the flames of nationalism. Several clubs, associations and unions were created at national and state levels. Among the influential clubs, associations and unions are discussed in the following sub-topics.

2.7.1 Singapore Malay Union

This union was established in 1926 by young, English-educated Singaporeans, led by Muhammad Eunos Abdullah. The unionÊs struggles were for:

(a) Improving the socio-economic and political status of the Malays; and

(b) Acting as intermediaries with the British.


2.7.2 The Penpals Association of Malaya (PASPAM)

This association was established by a group of Malay-educated individuals in 1934. It strived to improve the socio-economic status of the Malays. Its members comprised mainly of pro-young literature scholars.

2.7.3 Perak Malays Association

Established in Ipoh, Perak in 1937, this association headed by Wan Mohd Nur Wan Nasir fought to:

(a) Improve economic and education status of the people of Perak; and

(b) Defend Malay interests in the governance of the country.

2.7.4 Selangor Malays Union

This union was established in June 1938 in Kuala Lumpur and was led by Tengku Ismail bin Tengku Mohd Yasin. The union functioned as a political body in order to achieve the following:

(a) To urge the British to increase the number of Malay officers in the civil service;

(b) To recommend the cessation of migration of foreigners to the Malay Peninsular; and

(c) To urge the government to increase chances for education among the Malays.

2.7.5 Association of Peninsular Malays

The forming of the association in 1939 was engineered by the Selangor Malays Union. The association had the noble aim of uniting all the associations in the Malay Peninsular, which failed. This was due to the strong state partisanship among the Malay state associations.

2.7.6 Young Malays Union (KMM)

This union was formed in Kuala Lumpur in 1938. A large amount of its members were students of the Sultan Idris Training College (SITC). KMM was the first political body in the Malay Peninsular. Among its targets were:

(a) To unite all Malay states;


(b) To fight for the rights of the Malays;

(c) To overthrow the British;

(d) To fight for the independence of the Malay Peninsular; and

(e) To fight for the merger between the Malay Peninsular and Indonesia under the concept of ÂMelayu RayaÊ or Greater Malaya.

In Sabah, there were several socio-economic based associations fighting for social and economic interests of the local population. Mean while in Sarawak, the Sarawak Malay Association was established in 1939. This association aimed to develop the Sarawak Malays in all fields, as well as to cultivate cooperation among them.

EMERGENCE OF POLITICAL PARTIES 2.8

The spirit to oppose the Malayan Union, to liberate the homeland and to preserve the welfare of the race, were the basis for the forming of political parties in the Malay Peninsular before the country achieved independence. Therefore, let us view the main political parties formed during that time.

2.8.1 United Malays National Organisation (UMNO)

UMNO was formed to unite the Malays. It was established on 11 May 1946, and headed by Datuk Onn Jaafar. He was the first president of UMNO. He held the position until 1951. The short-term plan of the party was to oppose the Malayan Union. However the main aim of the forming of the party was to gain independence for the Malay Peninsular and to form a government. UMNO was also formed to unite the Malays and defend their special rights, especially in the resistance to the Malayan Union. In 1948, UMNO officially became a political party. Until 1951, 39 branches of UMNO were formed, and the party membership touched 100,375 members. At that time, UMNO had two bodies under its umbrella, the UMNO Youth Alliance and UMNO MothersÊ Movement.

2.8.2 Malayan Indian Congress (MIC)

The Malayan Indian Congress was formed on 8 August 1946, with John Thivy as its first president. The aim of MIC was to protect the political, economical and social interests of the Indians in the Malay Peninsular, as well as to represent the


Indians in putting forward suggestions to the government. Until 1949, there were 7000 members in MIC, and this figure increased to 20,000 in 1955.

2.8.3 Malayan Chinese Association (MCA)

The Malayan Chinese Association was officially formed on 27 February 1949 with Tan Cheng Lock as its first president. The aim of the party was to protect the economic, political and social rights and interests of the Chinese communities. The MCA also strived to preserve racial harmony in the country. The MCA was initially established as a welfare association. However in 1952, it was officially declared as a political party. Until 1949, MCA counted 100,000 members among its ranks, which increased up to 188,000 in 1951.

2.8.4 The Alliance Party

The cooperation between UMNO and MCA started during the Kuala Lumpur Municipal Council election in 1952. The Selangor UMNO and Kuala Lumpur MCA leaderships agreed to form a pact. In the election, the UMNO-MCA pact won 9 out of the 12 contended seats. This alliance was then expanded in the local government elections in several main towns, like Johor Bahru, Muar and Malacca. The alliance between the two parties at state level prompted the UMNO President, Tunku Abdul Rahman, and the MCA President, Tan Cheng Lock, to form the Alliance Party in 1955. The MIC joined the alliance in April 1955. The forming of the Alliance Party witnessed the cooperation between the three majority races in the Malay Peninsular. As a result, in the Malay Federation General Elections in 1955, the Alliance Party won 51 out of the 52 contended seats. This victory also formed the catalyst to a more enthusiastic cooperation to achieve the independence of the Malay Federation.

NEGOTIATIONS FOR INDEPENDENCE 2.9

The Alliance PartyÊs victory in the 1955 General Elections paved the path to self-governance. In January 1956, Tunku Abdul Rahman led a delegation to London to negotiate the independence of the Malay Peninsular with the British government. This delegation was made up of four representatives from the Alliance Party, four representatives from the Council of Rulers, and representatives from the British government in the Malay Peninsular. As result of these negotiations, the London Treaty was signed on 8 February 1956. The date for independence was fixed for 31 August 1957. Tunku Abdul Rahman


declared the date in the Bandar Hilir Field, Malacca when the delegation returned from London. From the negotiations, a commission tasked with drafting the new constitution of the Malay Peninsular the Reid Commission was created. Among the contents of the Constitution of the Malay Peninsular are:

(i) The Yang Dipertuan Agong as the head of state and elected from the nine Malay Rulers;

(ii) The head of government was the Prime Minister who would be elected from the Dewan Rakyat;

(iiii) A Parliament consisting of the Dewan Negara and Dewan Rakyat formed;

(iv) Conditions for citizenship tightened;

(v) Bahasa Melayu elevated as a national language; and

(vi) Islam as the Federal religion and other forms of religion are allowed.

FORMING OF MALAYSIA 2.10

The idea to form the Federation of Malaysia was mooted by Tunku Abdul Rahman (see Figure 2.2), the Federation of MalayaÊs first Prime Minister. The idea was mentioned in an important speech in Singapore in 27 May 1961. In his opinion, the forming of Malaysia would strengthen economic and political cooperation between the Federation of Malaya, Singapore, Sabah, Sarawak and Brunei, in accordance with the latest developments in South East Asia at the time. After his speech in Singapore, Tunku Abdul Rahman made trips to Sabah and Sarawak in June 1961 and to Brunei in July the same year, in order to explain the concept, aim and purpose of the forming of Malaysia. This suggestion, however, received mixed reactions. Discussions were also held between senior officials of the Federation of Malaya and British officials from Sarawak, Sabah and Singapore. As a result, a Racial Unity Negotiation Committee (JPPK) was formed in Singapore on June 1961, chaired by Donald Stephens.

Figure 2.2: Tunku Abdul Rahman, MalaysiaÊs first Prime Minister, Father of Independence (31 August

1957 to 21 September 1970)


The role of the JPPK was to:

(a) Explain the concept of the Malaysia bloc to the public;

(b) Gather opinions of the people; and

(c) Encourage efforts towards the forming of Malaysia. The JPPK meeting took place four times, in Jesselton, Sabah (now known as Kota Kinabalu); Kuching, Sarawak, Kuala Lumpur and Singapore. Brunei only sent observers to the last three meetings. In the last meeting in Singapore on February 1962, the meeting delegates agreed to submit a memorandum to the Cobbold Commission which was formed by the British. The memorandum contained important issues relating to the views and feelings of the people of Sabah and Sarawak with regards to joining the Federation of Malaysia. The Cobbold Commission, which was tasked with obtaining public opinion in Sabah and Sarawak about the forming of Malaysia as well as evaluation, submitted the report stating that the people of Sabah and Sarawak supported the forming of Malaysia on the condition that their interests would be protected. Based on the report, the Cobbold Commission made several suggestions:

(i) The new Malaysian Constitution should be based on the Malayan Constitution of 1957.

(ii) Sabah and Sarawak be given the power to determine their respective immigration policies.

(iii) Bahasa Melayu is made the national language.

(iv) The rights and status of Bumiputras in Sabah and Sarawak be guaranteed.

(v) Support for the name Malaysia to be used to represent the new country.

2.10.1 Reaction of Neighbouring Countries

Approaching December 1962, the Federation of Malaya, Singapore, Sabah and Sarawak agreed to the forming of MALAYSIA in 31 August 1963. However, dissent from Indonesia and the Philippines complicated matters. To reduce the tension, a three-way meeting involving the Federation of Malaya, Indonesia and the Philippines was held. The summit meeting between the heads of government, Tunku Abdul Rahman (representing the Federation of Malaya); President Sukarno (Indonesia) and President Macapagal the (Philippines) took place in Manila from 30 July to 6 August 1963. The summit meeting failed to bring about a solution to the dissent of the two countries.


The Indonesian and Filipino governments felt that they had valid reasons to oppose the forming of the Federation of Malaysia. In their opinion, the Malayan government should have obtained their views first before making statements that could create tension. History analysts have interpreted that President SukarnoÊs opposition to the forming of Malaysia due to the following:

(a) President Sukarno had plans to create an empire known as ÂIndonesia RayaÊ or Greater Indonesia. These plans would have failed as Malaysia would have become a large and strong country.

(b) The opposition was also seen as an attempt to deflect his peopleÊs opinions away from internal problems like economic decline, leadership crisis he faced and threat to security.

Consequently, Indonesia launched a campaign known as ÂKonfrontasiÊ or Confrontation. On 20 January 1963, President Sukarno announced his confrontational policy with the slogan ÂGanyang MalaysiaÊ or Crush Malaysia. You may be interested to note that he disagreed with the forming of Malaysia because he felt slighted having not been consulted by Malaya, a small country in relation to her much bigger neighbour, Indonesia. Sukarno also alleged that Malaysia would be a new political power which would threaten Indonesian interests, and hence weaken the spirit of Malay kinship he had been trying to cultivate all the while. The PhilippinesÊ opposition stemmed from the ambitions of President Macapagal to bring Sabah under Filipino jurisdiction. He claimed that Sabah originally was a part of his country. Prior to being colonised by the British, Sabah (at that time, North Borneo) was ruled by the Sultan of Sulu who obtained Sabah from the Sultan of Brunei. For your information, Sulu is now a part of the Philippines. Therefore, if Sabah accepted the offer to join Malaysia, it would have complicated matters for his territorial claims.

2.10.2 Reaction in Sabah and Sarawak

At the early stages, the Malay community felt apprehensive with the idea of Singapore entering the Federation. They feared the influx of Chinese would outnumber the Malays. However, this was averted by the suggestion that North Borneo or Sabah and Sarawak would also be joining the Federation, to preserve the ethnic balance between Bumiputras and non-Bumiputras in the Federation. They realised that by entering the Federation, they would be free of the British. Indirectly, the merger of Sabah and Sarawak would bring about changes to the population structure.


However, there were concerns, for example, about the people of Borneo would love their strength due to domination by the people from the Peninsular. The non-Malays feared they would suffer discrimination, i.e. not getting equal rights. Suspicion arose because they assumed that political power would be concentrated in Kuala Lumpur. Another matter worrying the Chinese in Sabah and Sarawak was the fear of being left out in the economic competition with their cousins in Singapore. The early resistance to the idea of the Federation, generally, was put to rest, and it became a plus factor to the national politics that were occurring. The investigation by the Cobbold Commission and United Nations into the views and aspirations of the Sabah and Sarawak populations, who were keen on the concept of Malaysia, helped strengthen the existing Federation.

2.10.3 Reaction in Brunei

Initially, the people of Brunei accepted the offer to join Malaysia. However, there was a section of the Brunei population who wanted to join Malaysia only after Brunei had achieved independence. Sultan Omar Ali Sarifuddin himself was very keen and considered the forming of Malaysia to be a good proposal. The aim to merge with Malaysia however faced resistance from the Brunei PeopleÊs Party, led by A.M. Azahari. The party wanted Brunei to merge with British North Borneo (Sabah) and Sarawak under the name North Kalimantan. This resistance led to an armed rebellion, which came to be known as the Brunei Rebellion, on 7 December 1962. However, it was stopped by the Sultan with the help of the British. At the time, the Sultan of Brunei laid down several claims in order to realise the entrance of Brunei into the Federation of Malaysia. Let us look at these claims.

(i) Brunei would be given at least 10 Parliament seats;

(ii) Allowed to continue control oil revenue;

(iii) Maintain autonomy in the early stages;

(iv) Maintain all its investments;

(v) Maintain low taxes;

(vi) Continue its education and welfare programmes; and

(vii) Acknowledge the seniority of the Sultan of Brunei in the Council of Rulers by taking account of the year he ascended the throne (1950) and not by the year Brunei entered Malaysia.


Several negotiations were held to solve the claims, and finally all the claims were met except the issues on oil revenue and the seniority of the Sultan of Brunei. Tunku Abdul Rahman, on the whole, agreed to meet the claims of the Brunei Sultan through compromise. However, the issues viewed seriously by the Sultan were not agreed upon. Sultan Omar Ali Sarifuddin decided to withdraw from joining Malaysia a day before the Treaty of Malaysia was due to be signed in London. He was said to have been insulted because the issue of his seniority was not deeply considered.

2.10.4 Reaction in Singapore

Generally, the idea of forming Malaysia was well received by the Singaporeans. Lee Kuan Yew himself, as the leader of the PeopleÊs Action Party (PAP), was said to have been very enthusiastic about the merger. However, the strong support given in the early stages began to wane in early 1961. This change of stance had come about due to changing political winds in Singapore. A splinter party from PAP, the socialist United PeopleÊs Party (UPP), offered stiff resistance to the participation of Singapore in Malaysia. This was because the UPP has ambitions of gaining SingaporeÊs independence through differing ways and ideologies. However, Lee Kuan Yew was still eager for Singapore to merge and be part of Malaysia. Here we see that such setbacks did not deter the decision to join Malaysia. For Tunku Abdul Rahman and Lee Kuan Yew, the problems faced strengthened their resolve to realise the forming of Malaysia.

2.10.5 Separation of Singapore and Malaysia

The initial date for forming Malaysia was set for 31 August 1963, but it had to be postponed to 16 September 1963. This was due to the delay of the report by the United Nations, as well as the continued opposition by Indonesia and the Philippines. Brunei, on the other hand, pulled out at the very last minute. Generally, the concept of a federation can be considered as a principle of organisation, whereby compromise is achieved collectively to solve issues and to form unity and diversity among the territories in a country. This can be achieved through the forming of a single political system. At that time, Sabah and Sarawak were British colonies. Singapore was a Crown Colony. The entry of these states into Malaysia was a way of them freeing themselves from foreign occupation. In fact, for the leaders and people of the respective countries, freedom from the influence of foreign powers was the main factor in choosing to join Malaysia.


The factors that led to the forming of Malaysia can be summarised as follows:

(a) Hastening the independence of Singapore, Brunei, Sabah and Sarawak;

(b) Reducing the threat of communism and to maintain regional stability and peace;

(c) Creating ethnic balance and strengthening unity;

(d) Developing the regional economies for the interests of people and member-states; and

(e) Cultivating a Malaysian nation of various races, based on the sharing of rich cultural heritage.

Two years after the forming of Malaysia, the Malays and Chinese in Peninsular Malaysia and Singapore suffered dangerous racial divisions. The tension started through the PeopleÊs Action Party (PAP) channels in Singapore and the Alliance Party channels in the Peninsular, leading to conflict. Approaching July 1964, the racial tension peaked until two riots broke out, one on 21 July 1964 and another on 2 September 1964. The consequences of the riots were:

(i) Worsened the understanding between Tunku and Lee Kuan Yew;

(ii) Worsened relations between Lee Kuan Yew and MCA leaders; and

(iii) Pushed Tunku into considering the separation of Singapore and Malaysia as a solution.

The ÂMalaysian MalaysiaÊ concept introduced by Lee Kuan Yew on April 1965 was among the factors that contributed to Malay unrest in the Peninsular. This slogan encouraged Malaysians, especially non-Malays, to state that there was no race in Malaysia that could claim to be more original than other races. In other words, all races, be it Malay, Chinese or Indians were equal. There was to be no concept of special rights to the Malays as the original people of the land. The slogan also united the Chinese in banding together against the Malays. At the same time, the Malays considered the slogan to outwardly challenge their ownership status of the land. Several efforts were made to find a solution. However, all efforts failed because Singapore continued to make things worse. Finally, on 9 August 1965, Singapore left the Federation of Malaysia. Singapore then formed a Republic, after being a member of the Malaysian Federation for only 23 months.


1. The idea of Malaysians was to put Malaysia at a higher level than when Malaya first achieved independence in 1957. Describe the consequences that arose from this idea and what were the forms of threats that might have occurred after the forming of the bloc.

2. Discuss the factors that led to the forming of the Federation of Malaysia. How far did these factors became the main basis of the forming of Malaysia?

ACTIVITY 2.2

ACTIVITY 2.3

Singapore separated from Malaysia after several conflicts that could have posed a big problem to Malaysia. Discuss, how far did the issue of national security, especially internal and external security, play a big role towards the decision that was reached.

This topic has explained the following matters: • The foreign powers that have colonised our country. • The main factors that caused foreign powers to have interest in colonising our

country. • The effects of the colonisation on the socio-economic and political system

today. • The concept of the Malayan Union or Kesatuan Malaya and its resistance by

the Malay race. • The main reasons why the citizens resisted foreign control of the national

political and economic administration. • You also learnt that efforts taken to achieve independence did not run

smoothly. Tunku Abdul Rahman put forward a serious proposal to form


Malaysia in Singapore on 27 May 1961, and it met with various reactions from different parties.

• Most of the people of the original states (Singapore, Brunei, Sabah and

Sarawak) were keen to join the Federation. • Brunei pulled out at the last minute before the Federation of Malaysia was to

have been declared. • Singapore created trouble after joining Malaysia. Indonesia and the

Philippines, on the other hand, strongly opposed the forming of the bloc.

Autonomy Confrontation Congress Entreport Federation Guerrilla

Independence Memorandum Nationalism Resident Union/Association

Barbara Watson Andaya & Leonard Y. Andaya. (1983). Sejarah Malaysia. Kuala

Lumpur: Macmillan Publishers (M) Sdn Bhd

Buyung Adil. (1973). Sejarah Melaka dalam Zaman Kerajaan Melaka. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Buyung Adil. (1985). Perjuangan Orang Melayu Menentang Penjajahan: Abad 15-19. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Muhammad Yusoff Hashim. (1992). The Malay Sultanate of Malacca. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka

Muhammad Yusoff Hashim. (1992). Pensejarahan Melayu: Kajian Tentang Tradisi Sejarah Melayu Nusantara. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka.

Muhammad Yusoff Hashim. (1989). Kesultanan Melayu Melaka. Kuala Lumpur: Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka

Shellabear, W.G.. (1978). Sejarah Melayu. Kuala Lumpur: Fajar Bakti


Syed Muhammad Naquib Al-Atas. (1972). Islam Dalam Sejarah dan Kebudayaan Melayu. Kuala Lumpur: Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

Education

Topic 2 period of colonisation and struggle for independence