Human Capital Management:

A South African Perspective

W. Goosen

Thesis

Philosophiae Doctor in the Management of Technology

and Innovation

The Da Vinci Institute for Technology Management

2012

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Human Capital Management:

A South African Perspective

by

Wynand Goosen

Student number: 4470

Thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the

requirements for the degree

Philosophiae Doctor in the Management of

Technology and Innovation

at

The Da Vinci Institute for Technology Management

Academic Supervisor: Prof B Anderson PhD

Field Supervisor: Prof M Mehl PhD

January 2012

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DECLARATION

I declare that the research project, quantifying human capital: A South

African perspective is my own work and that each source of information used

has been acknowledged by means of a complete reference. This thesis has

not been submitted before for any other research project, degree or

examination at any university.

…………………………………….

(Signature of student)

. . . . . . . . . . . . .

(Date)

Johannesburg, South Africa

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Human Capital Management:

A South African Perspective

Abstract

The research problem addresses the issue of learning taking place on broad

walks of life and not just in formal contexts. Learning so obtained attracts

limited formal recognition. The objective of the research is aimed at

developing a system whereby structure could be given to such learning, for

inclusion in formal human capital management systems. The researcher

considers amongst other the role of organizational objectives, in determining

required skills. It is suggested that required human capital could be

benchmarked against “formal learning programs”, with a view to create a

formal credit transfer system. The research also probes the possibility of

using such a system to determine specific skills gaps. Collectively, the

research is contextualized within the relevance of a Corporate Qualifications

Framework (CQF), a system that measures human capital in terms of a

strategic plan. A Corporate Qualifications Framework operates on three

principles – the required human capital (demand side), the actual human

capital (supply side) and the gap between the two. The demand side consists

of job descriptions, qualifications and occupational profiles. Supply side

standards are used to measure actual human capital by means of

performance management, performance assessment and the recognition of

prior learning (RPL).

The literature survey demonstrates how “thinking” has evolved over

centuries. The research indicates that the pursuit of knowledge seems to

focus on knowledge and not on profit.

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The development of a Meta Business Framework suggests a business

consciousness that recognizes the role of thinking and the development of

alternative realities that recognizes the evolution of humanity. Meta Business

suggests that business honours the relationship between mind and matter as

well as the interconnectedness of all things. Thus, the evolution of

educational thought, being integral to Meta Business, suggests the

development of learning to serve business requirements, whilst business is

designed for the benefit of humanity at large.

The research concludes with an overview of the research process. The

discussion is centered on the possibility of using non-formal learning as

formal credit in a process termed “work based learning”. The process entails

creating a system whereby the training conducted at the workplace

translates into credits within formal education programs. The roles of

academic institutions are important to enhance legitimacy and credibility.

The net result is the creation of a framework that is industry based – that

considers the needs and objectives of industry. The implications of the

research findings are that a CQF can be used to develop an integrated

system of human capital management.

The integrated conclusion suggests a redesign of the current educational

system in South Africa, to become adaptable and effective, serving the

needs of industry and society at large.

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Acknowledgements

My sincere gratitude to the following individuals without whom this research

journey would not have been possible:

To my Academic Supervisor, Professor Ben Anderson, for his

leadership, insight, patience, dedication and encouragement on my

journey of self-discovery and self – directedness;

To my Field Supervisor, Professor Merlyn Mehl, who has always been a

mentor and a guide

To, George Lupke, Patrick Mugumo and Celeste Smith, for their help

and encouragement.

To Dr. Linda Meyer for sharing her views and encouragement to

complete this research study;

To the staff and faculty of The Da Vinci Institute; particularly Onicca

Maculube who went beyond the call of duty in her support and as true

ambassadors of the Institute;

To the research participants, without whom, this research journey

would not have been possible.

W. Goosen

Initials + surname of student

Bryanston, Johannesburg

City/town of student’s residence

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List of Diagrams and Tables

Diagram 2.1 Development of knowledge

Diagram 2.2 Morphology

Diagram 2.3 Fractal Wallpapers

Diagram 2.4 Literature Survey

Diagram 3.1 Action Research Cycle

Diagram 3.2 Developmental Action Enquiries

Diagram 3.3 Overlapping Phases of Research

Diagram 3.4 The Paradigm Model

Diagram 4.1 From Concept to Theory

Diagram 5.1 The Current State

Diagram 5.2 The Future State

Table 3.1 The Framework of Relationships

Table 4.1 Personal Experience Concepts

Table 4.2 Categories developed from Personal Experience

Table 4.3 Literature Survey Concepts

Table 4.4 Categories developed from Literature Survey

Table 4.5 Research Questionnaires Concepts

Table 4.6 Categories developed from Research Questionnaires

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Annexures

Annexure A Research Questionnaire

Annexure B Concepts and categories from personal experience

Annexure C Concepts and categories from literature survey

Annexure D 1 Concepts and categories from research questionnaire

Annexure D2 Consolidation of research categories

Annexure E Results from research questionnaire

Annexure E1 Total jobs, vision and objectives

Annexure E2 How are people doing in their jobs

Annexure E3 Recommended training and skills GAP

Annexure E4 How would SDF measure actual human capital

Annexure E5 Is there a project plan to drive closure of GAP

Annexure E6 Management review process

Annexure E7 How is CQF implemented

Annexure F Alignment of research

Annexure G Discourse in the literature survey

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List of Acronyms

ABET Adult Basic Education and Training

ANC African National Congress

ATR Annual Training Report

CAT Credit Accumulation and Transfer

CEP Community of Expert Practitioners

CHE Council on Higher Education

CPD Continuous Professional Development

DHET Department of Higher Education and Training

DOL Department of Labour

ECTS European Credit Transfer System

EQF European Qualifications Framework

ETD Education Training and Development

ETQAs Education and Training Quality Assurance Authorities

FET Further Education and Training

GDP Gross Domestic Production

GET General Education and Training

HE Higher Education

HEQC Higher Education Quality Committee

HET Higher Education and Training

HEQF Higher Education Qualifications Framework

HRD Human Resource Development

MoU Memorandum of Understanding

NATED National Education Policy

NCV National Certificate (Vocational)

NQF National Qualifications Framework

NLRD National Learners’ Records Database

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NSA National Skills Authority

NVQ National Vocational Qualification

QCTO Quality Council for Trades and Occupations

QMS Quality Management Systems

RPL Recognition of Prior Learning

SACP South African Communist Party

SADC Southern African Development Community

SAQA South African Qualifications Authority

SAQI South African Quality Institute

SDA Skills Development Act

SMME Small-, Medium-, and Micro Enterprise

SETA Sector Education and Training Authority

SSETA Services Sector Education and Training Authority

SMME Small, Micro, and Medium Enterprises

TQM Total Quality Management

VET Vocational Education and Training

WSP Workplace Skills Plan

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Definition of Key Terms

Articulate To provide for learners, on successful

completion of accredited prerequisites, to

move between components of the delivery

system

Assessment

tools/instruments

The nature of the assessment task given to

the learner to do. Guidelines for the

Assessment of NQF registered Unit

Standards and Qualifications (SAQA;

2000).

Higher Education

Higher Education refer to education that

normally takes place in universities and

other higher education institutions, both

public and private, which offer

qualifications on the Higher Education

Qualifications Framework.

Further Education

Further Education refers to education

offered in Further Education and Training

(FET) colleges and similar programs in

other vocational colleges.

13

Occupationally directed

education, training and

development

Training that principally is conducted in the

workplace. It is also referred to as ‘on the

job training’, ‘workplace training’,

’vocational education and training’ or

‘career-oriented education’.

Occupational Education

Occupational education refers to

educational programs that are focused on

preparation for specific occupations, as well

as ongoing professional development and

training in the workplace.

Professional education

Professional education refers to educational

programs that lead to professional

registration

Quality Assurance

The sum of activities that assure the quality

of services against clear pre-determined

and described standards. Guidelines for the

Assessment of NQF registered Unit

Standards and Qualifications (SAQA; 2000)

14

TABLE OF CONTENTS

Acknowledgements vii

List of Diagrams and Tables viii

Annexures ix

List of Acronyms x

Definition of Key Terms 12

TABLE OF CONTENTS 14

CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH ORIENTATION 20

1.1. INTRODUCTION 20

1.2 BACKROUND AND DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM 23

1.2.1 THEORETICAL CONTEXT 25

1.2.2 APPLIED CONTEXT 27

1.2.3 BASIC CONSTRUCT AND CONCEPTS OF THE PROBLEM 27

1.3. THE RESEARCH QUESTION 33

1.4 IMPORTANCE OF THE RESEARCH 34

1.4.1 BENCHMARKS, MOBILITY AND EXIT POINTS 35

1.4.2 ORGANISATIONAL INTEGRATION 37

15

1.4.3 MACRO ECONOMIC EFFECTIVENESS 38

1.5 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY 39

1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 40

1.6.1 RESEARCH APPROACH 40

1.6.2 RESEARCH DESIGN AND LITERATURE REVIEW 42

1.6.3 DATA COLLECTION 44

1.6.4 DATA ANALYSIS 45

1.7 STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE OF STUDY 47

1.8 THE RESEARCH ASSUMPTIONS 51

1.9 CONCLUSION 52

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE SURVEY 54

2.1 INTRODUCTION 54

2.2 THE CASE FOR ACCREDITATION IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING

69

2.2.1 THE RELEVANCE OF ACCREDITATION TO STUDENTS 76

2.2.2 THE RELEVANCE OF ACCREDITATION TO BUSINESS 78

2.2.3 ACCREDITATION AND BUSINESS NEEDS 81

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2.2.4 VOCATIONAL ACCREDITATION 87

2.3 THE CASE FOR RECIPROCITY IN EDUCATION AND TRAINING 91

2.4 CORPORATE QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS 101

2.4.1 CREDIT ACCUMULATION 102

2.5 POLITICAL OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION 104

2.6 STRATEGIC PLANNING AND SKILLS NEEDS 107

2.7 BENCHMARKING OF SKILLS AND COMPETENCE 111

2.8 SKILLS, PERFORMANCE AND CERTIFICATION 113

2.9 CONCLUSION 116

DIAGRAM 2.4 LITERATURE SURVEY 118

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY 121

3.1 OVERVIEW 121

3.2 DATA GATERING AND ANALYSIS 139

3.2.1 DATA GATHERING 139

3.2.2 DATA ORDERING PHASE 141

3.2.3 DATA ANALYSIS 142

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3.3 DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESEARCH QUESTIONAIRE 149

3.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWLEDGE AND UNDERSTANDING 151

3.5 CONCLUSION 151

CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH REPORT 153

4.1 BACKGROUND 153

4.2 OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH REPORT 154

4.3 THE RESEARCH STAGES 157

4.4 RESEARCH FINDINGS 158

4.5 THE RESEARCHER’S PERSONAL EXPERIENCE 159

4.5.1 CONCEPTS IDENTIFIED FROM THE RESEARCHER’S PERSONAL

EXPERIENCE 159

4.5.2 CATEGORIES IDENTIFIED FROM CONCEPTS RELATED TO THE

RESEARCHER’S PERSONAL EXPERIENCE 162

4.5.3 CONCLUSION 164

4.6 THE LITERATURE SURVEY 164

4.6.1 CONCEPTS THAT DEVELOPED FROM THE LITERATURE SURVEY

165

4.6.3 CONCLUSION 172

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4.7 THE RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE 173

4.7.1 CONCEPTS THAT DEVELOPED FROM THE RESEARCH

QUESTIONAIRE 173

4.7.2 CATEGORIES IDENTIFIED FROM THE CONCEPTS RELATED TO

THE QUESTIONNAIRE 174

4.7.3 CONCLUSION 177

4.8 CONCLUSION 178

CHAPTER 5 - ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION 181

5.1 INTRODUCTION 181

5.2 THEMES THAT EMERGED FROM THE STUDY 181

5.2.1 THEME 1: THE ROLE OF STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT IN THE

DEVELOPMENT OF AN INTEGRATED HUMAN CAPITAL MANAGEMENT

SYSTEM 181

5.2.2 THEME 2: THE ROLE OF SKILLS AS A PRODUCTIVY DRIVER

184

5.2.3 THEME 3: THE ROLE OF NON-FORMAL LEARNING IN A FORMAL

LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 186

5.2.4 THEME 4: THE ROLE OF AWARNESS AND CONTEXTUAL

UNDERSTANDING 189

5.3 THE CURRENT SITUATION IN SOUTH AFRICA 192

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5.4 CONCLUSION 193

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION 196

6.1 INTRODUCTION 196

6.2 REVIEW OF CHAPTER OBJECTIVES 197

6.3 PROPOSED FURTHER RESEARCH 199

6.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY 201

6.5 SUMMARY 201

20

CHAPTER 1: RESEARCH ORIENTATION

1.1. INTRODUCTION

In April 1994 a new socio-political dispensation took the

accountability and responsibility for governing South Africa. One of

the objectives of the new government was to make education and

training available for the entire population. According to the findings

of the Reconstruction and Development Program (RDP) of 1994, the

structure and capacity of education in South Africa became seriously

outmoded (ANC, 1994). The consequence was that the education

system no longer delivered the industry competence required for

sustainable economic growth. The development of business skills

and competence has therefore been influenced by the limitations

relating to primary, secondary and tertiary education system in

South Africa.

This comes as a result of the modern economy demanding skills that

are focused on both professional and vocational competence. A new

system that integrates education and workplace training has to be

designed and developed. As part of such development, industry

training would have to assume increased responsibility for the

development of industry skills, using in-house industry training to

supplement, assist and in some cases, replace formal training. This

phenomenon is a precursor to the development of a system where

training and education would need to be more measurable. However,

it deserves to be mentioned that norms, developed because of

effective measurements, are in fact a result of social construction.

Thus, the existing norms, being the existing qualifications in our

21

society, are assumed to be the correct benchmarks for learning and

industry requirements.

The correctness of such an assumption is debatable. In order for the

norms to be valid, the system for engagement of stakeholders would

have to be addressed. This research is not focused on the process of

stakeholder engagement but rather on how alternative norms could

be applied for existing learning. The development of a system

whereby learning programs could be identified in terms of

complexity levels, and subject matter, is imperative. The South

African education and training system is under review for the past

eleven years, considering the role and impact of, amongst others, a

National Qualifications Framework (NQF).

It was believed that by establishing a National Qualifications

Framework, learners would be empowered to advance to higher

levels of learning (RDP, 1994:63). According to Aber (1998:49) the

National Qualifications Framework is both an enabling framework

and a social construct. This means that it should enable people to

co-ordinate their learning throughout their lives. Thus, it enables a

normative system where a learner can build a portfolio of skills that

is measurable, comparable and mobile. Such an approach will enable

a learner to “grow” a skills collection that can be used to obtain a

qualification. In this regard the new system for skills development is

both holistic and sophisticated (Lategan, 2001:13). The interim

report of the Sub Committee appointed by the Committee for

Tutorial Matters (CTM), in South Africa, identified access

impediments to South African higher education institutions as early

as 1993 (Committee on tutorial matters, 1993:5). During 1993,

22

Universities in South Africa, enrolled some 350 000 students, 44% of

whom were white. The Technikon's at that time registered 138 000

students, of whom 54% were white. Access patterns in South

African education institutions improved over the past fifteen years in

terms of cultural identity and variety, but continue to mirror a higher

education system differentiated along racial lines (Committee on

tutorial matters, 1993:5). The challenge is to create equitable access

that recognizes the principles of human development, and to allow

learning that can take place inside as well as outside the class room

(The Common Wealth of Learning, 1997:1). In South Africa, this

initiative was driven by the introduction of the South African

Qualifications Authority (SAQA), the Skills Development Act and the

National Qualifications Framework (NQF) since 1994.

On 23 February 2010 the Quality Council for Trades and Occupations

(QCTO) was launched in South Africa. The QCTO is tasked to develop

industry profiles for occupations and to use the vocational profiles to

develop curriculums to inform national qualifications. The intention is

not to replace all developed qualifications and unit standards, but

rather to compare and update existing qualifications to match the

vocational needs of industry.

The South African education system does, however, not allow for

recognition of any non-formal or prior learning, unless it is done via

the recognized, accredited residential or correspondence institutions.

The only formal system for quantification of human capital,

incorporating learning and competence, is the existing education

system. An individual can quantify (measure and compare) learning

and competence in terms of a Matric certificate, a National Diploma

23

or a Degree. The Higher Education Act (101 of 1997) formally

controls the issuance of any form of “Degree” and thus the

quantification of learning and ultimately, the quantification of human

capital.

Non-formal training and education is seldom recognized by formal

institutions within South Africa, with the result that such

development is not formally acknowledged, notwithstanding the fact

that it takes place in company training rooms (Hamm and

Associates, 1997:1). Skills and competence developed in industry

does therefore not enjoy the same recognition as skills and

competence developed by elitist tertiary education systems,

notwithstanding the fact that they may be equal in standing.

Competency based models for performance and development need

to be developed and implemented that will link strategy to business

goals, clarifying the required and actual competency of individuals

and establishing standards for performance (Venter, 1998:43).

1.2 BACKROUND AND DEFINITION OF THE PROBLEM

The problem of no recognition of non-formal training and education

has an historical origin and explanation. No evidence in practice or

literature could be found of recognition of non-formal training in

South Africa prior to 1985. With the evolution of the South African

economy, companies started training and later educating staff in-

house. Company training started moving closer toward formal

structure requirements, and universities, in serving industry, started

curriculating more and more according to industry needs. According

to the RDP (1994:61) industry based education and training should

24

be consistent in design with the National Qualifications Framework

(NQF) whereby government integrates industry education with

formal education (Government Gazette, 1995:1). However, access to

higher education seems to be a challenge in that black and

particularly African student access to higher education, has been

mainly into academic institutions at which professional, natural

science, postgraduate and research programs, were the least

developed (Committee on tutorial matters, 1993:5). This, coupled

with the low performance of the Department of Higher Education and

Training (DHET) school system in mathematics and science

education, has meant that African students in higher education are

studying predominantly in the fields of education, arts and social

sciences.

Access is thus hampered by the “academic inability” of prospective

candidates. By creating a system whereby all learning, irrespective

of origin, can be assessed, measured and transferred as credit

towards (for example), a Certificate or even Bachelors degree, the

access challenge can be alleviated as learners obtain similar credits

from other sources. In addition, economic competency and skills can

be created without having to place additional strain on the education

system. Using the existing frameworks, such as the matric certificate

and the degree qualification, one could facilitate the measurement of

skills, learning and competence. Such measurement should form the

basis for the quantification of human capital.

Forty-one percent of South Africa's privately held businesses cite the

unavailability of a skilled workforce as the biggest constraint to

business growth (Business Report, 2009). At the same time, South

25

African unemployment rates have not been lower than 20% since

1997 (Index Mundi, 2011). This raises the question whether there is

a connection between unemployment and the absence of a skilled

workforce. The redesign of the education and training system should

therefore have as an objective, the increased economic output of the

country as a whole and focus should be on a system that creates

skills, productivity and consequently, enables employment for all its

citizens.

1.2.1 THEORETICAL CONTEXT

The research is embedded in the human resources field and

specifically the skills development arena. Issues of using competency

based unit standards, as well as extracts from non-unit standard

based qualifications, to define job descriptions, will be investigated.

The study will draw on existing labour market theories in

competency and skills creation. The literature survey is intended to

underpin the theoretical construct and illuminate the way forward for

human capital development.

The suggested system will have to be one where learning activities

can be thought of as building blocks, so that the individual can build

a portfolio of credits for qualifications, ranging from the Further

Education and Training band (FET) to the Higher Education and

Training band (HET). It is accepted that the skills and academic

inability of students and prospective employees are mostly

concentrated in the disadvantaged population groups within South

Africa (Index Mundi, 2011). To ensure the advancement of an

underdeveloped society, this syndrome will have to be counteracted

26

by a constant supply of motivated, economically active and skilled

labour. A society of low achievers implies an ineffective economy and

low tax base for government, which in turn implies inferior

government services like health, police and also, education (Sachs,

2005:60).

The sustained inability to afford further and tertiary education could

thus be viewed as a challenge that must be addressed at all possible

levels - in formal as well as non-formal education (The Common

Wealth of Learning, 1997:1). Worldwide the principle of Credit

Accumulation Transfer as formal credits for primary, secondary as

well as tertiary education, occurs in different forms. In the United

States of America, Bear (1991:45) describes the philosophy

underpinning credit for Life Experience Learning as follows:

“Academic Credit is given for what you know, without regard for

how, when, or where credit was acquired”. In the United Kingdom, a

very similar system is called the “National Vocational Qualification

Council.” The credits so obtained by students are called, “NVQ”

(Lycos, 1997:1). In the Netherlands, the system is referred to as

Higher Vocational Training (Dekker and van Schalkwyk, 1990:105),

whilst Germany’s “Bildungsgesamtplan” or education plan, provides

for vocational education (Dekker and van Schalkwyk, 1990:21). In

New Zealand a system called the National Qualifications Authority

(NZQA), regulates the context whereby formal credit is given to

vocational education (Kiwi, 1997:1). In essence, the recognition of

non-formal learning as formal qualification credits is aimed at

recognizing existing expertise, thus formalizing learning and creating

additional competence.

27

1.2.2 APPLIED CONTEXT

Another impediment to access in tertiary education in South Africa is

the availability of seats (Education Statistics South Africa, 2008: 5).

While correspondence institutions such as the University of South

Africa (UNISA) are capable of coping with large student numbers,

residential institutions have limited seating space. In 2008 only

5.7% of all eligible learners in South Africa were enrolled in the

Higher Education system (Education Statistics South Africa, 2008:

5). The increasing private initiative to provide further and higher

education partly supports this crisis of access to higher education.

Government is thus simply not capable of providing solutions for the

current challenge. A large number of private education and training

institutions can and does provide quality education products to the

public. Yet, some are hampered from issuance of marketable

certification such as a degree, whilst the word “university” is actually

forbidden to be used by such institutions. Private further and tertiary

education could therefore assist in the seat shortage in tertiary

education if their programs can be used for degree credits, providing

that the playing field is fair. Industry also engages in training

conducted in-house. This is done by either appointing trainers on the

payroll of companies, or by contracting certain in-house training

needs to independent external providers.

1.2.3 BASIC CONSTRUCT AND CONCEPTS OF THE PROBLEM

Foreign universities flooded into newly democratic South Africa

during the 1990s but most pulled out after being confronted by

rigorous accreditation and registration processes, leaving the small

28

but influential and increasingly stable private tertiary sector

dominated by local groups (MacGregor, 2008). This rigorous

accreditation process further impedes formal recognition of non-

formal training in South Africa (MacGregor, 2008). Within the

Shoprite Checkers stable, and specifically OK Bazaars, a major

player in the retail industry, it was found that several possibilities

exist to re-package programs into subject equivalents. The reality is

thus, that the equivalent of higher subjects are being offered on a

fragmented basis, as part of a so-called in-house company training,

or non-formal training program. These fragmented training courses

do not enjoy any recognition similar to that of higher education

subjects. An employee, having completed such in-house training,

can therefore not obtain any formal credits for such training, when

he or she enrolls at a higher education institution in South Africa.

The reason being that in-house training is not "accredited" by the

further or tertiary education system in South Africa. The logic behind

this is that these in-house training courses vary in aspects such as

quality, contact time and level. McLernon and Hughes (2004)

examines the relationship between work-based learning (WBL) and

institutional learning (IL) with a view to determining what academic

credit is awarded for and how it is awarded. The authors further

state that there is currently no rational method of awarding credit for

work-based learning and proposes that articulations in current

frameworks for credit accumulation and transfer schemes for

academic learning may provide a substantive and transparent means

of attributing academic credit to Work Based Learning. They also

recommend that such a framework should be developed specifically

for work-based learning (McLernon and Hughes, 2004).

29

A system of accreditation is thus required whereby any in-house

program can be assessed for credit in relation to existing formal

qualifications. No such national system exists in South Africa

(Manning, 1991), although some higher education institutions do

acknowledge such learning for credit purposes within qualifications

through a process of Recognition of Prior Learning (RPL). With the

introduction of the Sector Education and Training Authorities (Seta)

driven Education and Training Quality Authorities (ETQA) and the

practical use of unit standards and RPL, this possibility may evolve in

the near future for South Africans.

“Industry's original motive for training is to enable a worker to

perform his or her job function better” (Decker and van Schalkwyk,

1990:1). Later schools of thought introduced the "total person

approach" in management and human relations driven organizations

(Harrison, 1993:189). This particular school of thought argued that

by developing the total person, the functional person performing the

task develops accordingly. The implication is that company training

extends its involvement from task-orientated training to human

development via education (Harrison, 1993). “This development

implied shrinkage in the differences between education and training

as new knowledge and information became the driving force of

regional, national and global economic transformation “(Fehnel,

2001:18). Thus, suggesting the initiation of at least a connection

between workplace training needs and the recognition of the

employee.

The objective of the contemporary enterprise has evolved to long-

term shareholder’s wealth, employee development and

30

environmental responsibility (Senge, 2010). The employee has

unlimited needs and limited resources. The need for synergy

between employee and organization is thus always present.

Management is faced with the task of finding ways to ensure the

attainment of organizational objectives via its people, and in the

process, satisfying employee needs (Senge, 2010). By linking

training to employee needs and organizational objectives,

productivity can be increased. “In the process, training must add

meaning and value to the trainee's life” (Eveden and Andersen,

1992:296). Training must contribute to the employee’s

development, and in such scenario, training must be cost effective,

not only for the organization, but also for the country (Dekker and

van Schalkwyk, 1990). In order for workplace training to make such

a contribution systems to formalize such training will have to be

developed.

According to Orphen (2003:26) companies should “engage in

scenario planning in order to ensure strategic success”. Stronger

employee rights have also been established with the introduction of

new legislation (Whysall, 2003). It should be taken into account that

money spent on education in South Africa is tax deductible and

therefore decreases the tax income of a country. The money lost on

taxes could be re-applied in formal education. “Training should

therefore be documented, registered, assessed or measured. In this

regard modern companies have formal assessment feedback

systems in place “(Gering and Pienaar, 2001:40). Training and also

competency, must therefore be assessed, relative to existing

structures in education, for example the degree. The process, called

"accreditation" implies recognition of training for credit elsewhere,

31

such as a degree (Bear, 1990:23). In order to establish such

accreditation or recognition, a comparison of non-formal training

with formal training has to be made. According to Firer (2002)

organizations should view training as a strategic priority – this

implying that it should follow from the strategic plan.

Urquhart (2001) believes that the strategic challenges of the

organization need to be well defined, to enable the organization to

identify what it intends to achieve and how successful it is at

determining its goals. Such activity could assist in determining the

required human capital priorities. The registration of such human

capital will imply automatic mobility of training - once a company’s

training is compared, assessed and accredited; employees will be

able to transfer their learning when changing employers.

Documentation, registration and accreditation imply the

establishment of a database for the administering of such a system.

Such a system would have to be capable of handling large volumes

cost effectively and timeously.

Mobility implies articulation at further and tertiary levels between

qualifications and institutions. According to the 1992 "Reconstruction

and Development Plan" (RDP) South Africa need to develop an

integrated system of education and training, providing equal

opportunities to all, irrespective of race, gender, class, color,

language and political or other opinion (RDP, 1994). It is also

required to address the development of knowledge and skills to

produce high quality goods and services to develop the South African

economy and its people. “Education must be geared towards the

development of the individual and the community, and should also

32

promote tolerance and a spirit of co-operation amongst all people”

(Eveden and Anderson, 1992:83).

In view of the above a new national human resources development

strategy must be developed based on the principles of democracy,

non-racism, non-sexism, equity and redress to avoid the

shortcomings of the previous South African regime (RDP, 1990). It

is considered the duty of government to ensure that human

resources are developed effectively via industry-based education and

training boards, with union and employer participation, to design and

implement programs within industries, consistent with the standards

developed for an integrated national framework. The Industry will,

for purposes of this study, be defined as all companies engaging the

activity of in-house training of staff.

Education and training for skills development should adhere to the

following principles:

• It must be modular and outcome-based; must

recognize prior learning and experience; must

develop transferable and portable skills; must have

common standards, and

• It must be integrated within the national qualifications

and accreditation system.

Bear (1991:9) defines the term degree as a title conferred by a

school to show that a certain course of study has been successfully

completed. Degree requirements are all outcomes required for the

attainment of such a title. Manning (1997:54) identifies three goals

33

to begin with, namely; ensure that every person in the organization

knows what to do; focus attention on a few key themes and inspire

people to explore their potential.

1.3. THE RESEARCH QUESTION

The questions related to this research are four fold:

a) Could an organizational strategic plan be used to determine

the required human capital for an organization?

b) Is it possible that industry experience, workplace learning

competence and non-formal training programs could be

compared favorably in content, level and outcomes, with each

other?

c) Does a benchmark system exist to determine a gap analysis of

skills?

d) Is it possible to quantify human capital in relation to a

Corporate Qualifications Framework?

The question extends to whether industry can quantify human

capital in companies as a mechanism for skills assessment. If such a

mechanism could be established the process of developing a

Workplace Skills Plan in terms of the South African Skills Act, would

be greatly advanced.

The expected outcome of this study is that a system of normative

measurement for skills auditing can be developed. The problem

addressed in this study is thus the absence of an integrated,

vocational education and training accreditation system that enables

companies to determine the required level of skill, and the effects

34

thereof on employees and the economy at large. Thus, the research

also intends to address the inability to “count”, measure, recognise

or compare skills, irrespective of the origin of such skills.

1.4 IMPORTANCE OF THE RESEARCH

Education as it has evolved implies the furnishing of an individual

with a collection of skills as well as the development of his/ her

cognitive ability – thus, creating a human capital base. Training

refers to the task orientated transfer of technology to participants,

with the objective of empowering them to perform specific tasks.

The skills and competence of a society determines the economic

outputs of such a society (Sachs, 2005:72). Therefore, if a system

can be developed whereby a business community can develop its

business competence, productivity would be enhanced. Education is

generally believed to be taking place at tertiary institutions like

universities, while training is believed to be taking place on the job,

in industry, by the company itself, or it’s appointed representatives

(McLernon and Hughes, 2004). Competent members of industry with

a proven track record of ability - having performed successfully at

their jobs for long periods of time, are often people without formal

qualifications.

Such individuals, when applying for entrance to tertiary education,

receive no credit for in house training, nor do they receive

recognition for their proven track record of ability. In contrast, these

applicants are being treated the same as a person with a matric

certificate. No recognition is therefore given to human capital, unless

formalized in a formal system. What the system implies is that

35

education is only education when it is obtained via the process of

exposure of the self to formal tertiary education and in-house

training is thus not recognized at all.

As a result of non-recognition of in-house training towards formal

qualifications, individuals have in the past opted to obtain formal

qualifications rather than in-house training. The result was that the

objective for learners became to obtain qualifications rather than to

develop competence. The result has therefore been certification

without competence, with no link between the qualifications and the

strategic objectives of the business. The effect is resulting in the

creation of qualifications that do not serve the community at large.

In this study the possibility of using business strategic objectives to

determine required competence, will be investigated. The required

competence, so determined, will be tested against acceptable

benchmarks of education and training, to determine whether the

attainment of such competence can lead to a qualification.

The research intends to contribute to the professional context in as

much as it assists to define the application of an Organizing

Framework for Occupations, as an instrument to measure human

capital and to quantify jobs in relation to business plans and to

enable performance management against a national standard.

1.4.1 BENCHMARKS, MOBILITY AND EXIT POINTS

Both education and training in South Africa lack mobility and exit

points. In the banking industry in South Africa, for example, banks

often do not recognize each other’s teller training programs. The

36

employee moving from one employer to another is therefore

regarded as not being competent or having any training, or having

training that cannot be compared or measured formally. The

absence of mobility is due to the fact that human capital is not

quantified in forms other than formal degrees, certificates or

diplomas. It is therefore very difficult to benchmark a one-day

training program against a degree, diploma or certificate. There is

currently no system in South Africa by which training can be

compared or expressed in relative terms to a formal qualification.

The intention is that the National Qualifications Framework will

ultimately fulfill this requirement. However, the question remains

whether it is possible for companies to quantify their actual human

capital and compare it on a normative scale to an independent

benchmark.

Exit points in the present education system are very limited. The use

of unit standards in South Africa, however, enables the accumulation

of credits on a piece meal basis. Learners who have completed a

skills program will qualify for access into a certificate program. This

system should at least alleviate the problem of exit points, in as

much as it could provide an avenue to recognize smaller "units" of

learning. Programs such as the National Diploma in Banking and

Public Relations in South Africa, would for example, only have

reasonable exit points after the second year. This is due to the fact

that the first level of meaningful skill, being the level at which a

person is employable in industry, is reached after the completion of

24 months of this three-year National Diploma.

37

1.4.2 ORGANISATIONAL INTEGRATION

Training and education programs often lack organizational

integration. Training is quite often geared to supply the person with

skills that are only task orientated, without taking into consideration

the aspect of total person development. Staff is often being trained

in a vacuum resulting in a situation where they are capable of

performing a task without the understanding of the importance of

that task. This tunnel vision training limits the employees

understanding of the total task, the organization and its mission,

vision and objectives (Senge, 2010:297). The employee ends up

functioning without an holistic vision of the enterprise. According to

Wylie (2002:48) the answer lies in using scenario planning for the

development of organizational strategies to address development

issues related to performance. In this regard Addison (2002:25)

believes that leadership should be conducted with vision, whilst

Motloung (2009) quotes a statement from Telkom employee,

Charlotte Mokoena, who states that human capital development, call

for a holistic, multi pronged approach, to serve both business and

employee needs.

Education at tertiary institutions in turn, often function on academic

grounds that fail to take into consideration the real needs of

industry. Graduate recruits often find themselves educated but not

trained for a specific task. Both education and training should take

into consideration the needs of the individual, and endeavor to unite

the needs of the individual with the objectives of the organization.

The employee should therefore obtain some form of credit for in-

house courses completed. Such courses must contribute to the

38

fulfillment of the needs of the individual and contribute to the

attainment of the organizational objectives. When individual needs

are satisfied in striving towards organizational objectives, true

harmony and synergy can be reached within an enterprise. Cole

(1998:32) suggests that leading people requires knowledge of the

organization and its strategy.

Human capital is considered to be that which the business uses as a

base for its operations. Human capital is thus the collective ability of

individuals to sustain organizational outputs.

1.4.3 MACRO ECONOMIC EFFECTIVENESS

According to the Reconstruction and Development Program (1994)

an integrated system of education and training that provides equal

opportunities to all, irrespective of race, color, sex, class, language,

age, religion, geographical location and political belief, is needed.

“Education must be directed to the full development of the individual

and community, and strengthen respect for human rights and

fundamental freedoms. It must promote understanding, tolerance

and friendship among all South Africans and must advance those

principles contained in the Bill of Rights. In this regard education

should be based on the principles of democracy, non-racism, non-

sexism, equity and redress, to avoid the pitfalls of the past” (RDP,

1990:60).

Statutory bodies, based on appropriate democratic representation of

stakeholders, should establish standards and advise the national

ministry and provincial departments on policy and development

programs in education and training. Industry-based education and

39

training boards should be established with union and employer

participation, to design and implement programs within industries.

The definition of economics refers to how society satisfies its

unlimited needs with limited resources (Samuelson and Nordhaus,

1989:5). The RDP, as an economic development program, addresses

the very "HOW" of need satisfaction. This "HOW" thus pertains to the

stimulus and application of human ability to ensure optimal need

satisfaction. Education and training is responsible for the

development of new and innovative methods of need satisfaction -

the "HOW" of macro-economic needs satisfaction (Abel and

Bernanke, 1991). From there then, arises the need for a nationally

co-ordinate strategy and plan to ensure that the nation is provided

with the required skills for optimum needs satisfaction (Dekker and

van Schalkwyk, 1990:11). At a corporate level, human resource

executives need to develop systems to identify and measure its skills

base. According to Vinassa (2002:8) Human Resource executives

must become more aware of financial goals and align human

resource functions with strategic goals.

1.5 AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY

It is the aim of this study to develop and establish a framework for

the assessment of non-formal training, and in the process, quantify

human capital. In doing so, this study has the following objectives:

o To demonstrate how a strategic plan can be unpacked

into a set of required competencies that can be aligned

to educational standards

40

o To demonstrate how non-formal training can be

assessed against formal benchmarks and how non-

formal programs can become credit bearing

o To demonstrate how a benchmark system can be used

for a GAP analysis in human capital management.

o To demonstrate how a Corporate Qualifications

Framework can be developed whereby industry can

quantify and manage human capital for purposes of

performance management.

1.6 RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

1.6.1 RESEARCH APPROACH

In pursuit of the research aim and objectives, a literature study and

qualitative investigation will be conducted. The literature study will

investigate how educational thought evolved in order to develop the

context in which a Corporate Qualifications Framework will find

applicability, using strategic planning and non-formal training in the

process. It is proposed that strategic planning be considered as a

possible source to determine the required human capital of an

organisation. The process that should be followed in determining a

strategic plan should incorporate aspects related to the vision,

mission and objectives of the organisation. The strategic objectives

will be analyzed to determine the required tasks to be performed by

employees. These tasks will then be compared and benchmarked

against the system of educational standards and unit standards

registered on the NQF. This will be followed by the development of a

graph on which all the required unit standards of competence (for an

41

organization) will be displayed. Thus, the part of the NQF that

applies to the specific business will be displayed. By using this micro

application of the NQF a business would be building a “Corporate

Qualifications Framework” (CQF). The study will investigate whether

a CQF can be used as a benchmark to consolidate the objectives of

the business with that of the qualifications of an employee.

A grounded theory approach will be followed in order to

demonstrate:

How a strategic plan can be unpacked into a set of required

competencies aligned to educational standards.

How non-formal training can be assessed against formal

benchmarks.

How non-formal programs can become credit bearing.

How a Corporate Qualifications Framework can be developed

whereby industry can quantify and manage human capital for

purposes of performance management.

Grounded theory is a systematic methodology in social science

involving the generation of theory from data (Borgatti, 2011). It is

mainly used in qualitative research, but can also be applicable in

quantitative data (Borgatti, 2011). The grounded theory is suitable

for this research based for the following reasons:

The research occurs within the natural environment of the

respondents (Bogdan and Bilken, 1982:9). There companies

identified are asked a set of probing questions to investigate

the research question.

42

Grounded theory is about discovering the participants main

concern and how they are constantly trying to resolve it

(Glasser, 1998). This research is investigating the possible use

of corporate qualifications frameworks and their applicability in

the business.

The result of grounded theory is not a report of statistically

significant probabilities, but a set of probability statements

about the relationships between concepts (Glasser, 1998). This

research is focused on exploring relationships between issues

and demonstrating frameworks that present new applications

and solutions.

Validity in its traditional sense is not an issue in grounded

theory, which instead should be judged by fit, relevance

workability and modifiability (Glasser and Strauss, 1967). This

research is not aimed at providing proof of any hypothesis.

Instead a set of research questions are addressed with a view

to develop improved business efficiency.

1.6.2 RESEARCH DESIGN AND LITERATURE REVIEW

Due to the nature of the research, the methodology will be

qualitative (Houp and Pearsall, 1987:60). Individual investigations

are the main method of eliciting evidence. Thus, the main source of

information would be the people who currently employ specific

systems in skills development, human resources and business

planning, as well as performance management in South Africa.

However, the source of information from people will be tested

against a solution that will have its origin firmly in applied theory.

The development of the framework will result from reports, the

43

internet, books and publications and also conference papers. A

critical analysis of policies, reports and other publications in business

and related industry magazines will also be used. Measurement and

observation of results and situations will be integrated in the

development of the proposed framework.

Personal interviews have been shown to have widespread relevance

when trying to establish opinions in research (Hannan, 2007). A

quantitative survey does not allow for dissenting views, and limits

the type of responses available to the respondents (Hannan, 2007).

When using a qualitative methodology, the company representatives

are able to give their exact opinions and are allowed the opportunity

to discuss the topic in detail. All the pros and cons can be tabled and

analyzed in detail. This not only allows the participants freedom to

respond, but also allows the researcher the chance to obtain varying

information and to develop a good understanding of how the

concerned individuals feel, rather than relying on specific questions

which do not necessarily elicit relevant and important information.

The research findings will be presented in a qualitative format and

used to discuss the results and recommendations of the research

study. A step-by-step plan for the management of the literature

review and data gathering process will be discussed in the data

collection section.

The literature review and data collection will follow closely on each

other. For more information see Annexure A.

According to Lester (1993:104) the literature review is a mini essay

about the source material of a research topic. It also sets the

44

context for the investigation of the topic and it organizes and

classifies the resources for the benefit of the reader. In this research

the literature survey is intended to orientate the research and to

outline the present and possible future environment of skills

development in South Africa.

1.6.3 DATA COLLECTION

The population, from which the sample will be drawn, will be the

services industry in South Africa. From the population, companies

will be invited to participate, based on the following purposive and

convenience sampling criteria:

Companies must be service seta members

Companies must have been levy paying members for 5 years

or longer

Companies must have a minimum of 30 and a maximum of

200 employees

Companies must employ a qualified SDF with at least 5 years

experience

Companies must be in good standing with the service seta

Companies must have sent a representative who completed

the skills development-training program between 2007 and

2009.

From the above, 169 qualifying respondents from a selection of

companies were identified. The 169 participants will be used to test

the application of a CQF. Concepts and categories will be developed

from personal experience, literature survey and research

questionnaires. Skills Development Facilitators will be asked to

45

complete the questionnaire as a POE. The research will consider all

relevant parties in the 169 respondents who would be influenced and

concerned by the establishment of a CQF.

The steps that will be followed:

1. Identifying the service industry as target sector

2. Identifying and listing of companies in industry whose training

will be measured

3. Conducting formal quantification of human capital from

selected companies

4. Interacting with Skills Development Facilitators to determine

their opinions

5. Auditing skills set of companies - assessment of non-formal

learning outcomes

6. Comparing non-formal learning outcomes with formal learning

outcomes

7. Building an in-house Corporate Qualifications Framework

8. Identifying shortcomings

1.6.4 DATA ANALYSIS

Analysis of data is a process of inspecting, cleaning, transforming

and modeling data with the goal of highlighting useful information,

suggesting conclusions and supporting decision making (Ader,

2008). Data analysis has multiple facets and approaches,

encompassing diverse techniques under a variety of names, in

different business, science and social science domains (Shamoo,

1989). In statistical applications, some divide data analysis into

46

descriptive statistics, exploratory data analysis (EDA) and

confirmatory data analysis (CDA). EDA focuses on discovering new

features in the data and CDA on confirming or falsifying existing

hypotheses (Veryard, 1984). Predictive analytics focuses on the

application of statistical or structural models for predictive

forecasting or classification, while text analytics applies statistical,

linguistic and structural techniques to extract and classify

information from textual sources, a species of unstructured data. All

are varieties of data analysis (Shamoo, 1989).

The analysis of data will include the following:

o Inspecting Data - Identification and qualification of the

participants to partake in the research.

o Cleaning Data - Consideration of the number of

participants that support and are able to implement a

CQF

o Transforming Data – Investigating the ability of

participants to unpack human capital required in relation

to a strategic plan

o Modeling Data - The ability to align required skills into

job descriptions aligned to educational standards

o Allocation of functional skills to jobs, as required tasks,

from where the alignment to educational standards will

commence

o Modeling Data into the development of an integrated

human capital management framework.

47

The data analysis will be conducted in alignment with the principles

of grounded theory.

1.7 STRUCTURE AND OUTLINE OF STUDY

CHAPTER 2

In this chapter literature available on the subjects of accreditation,

credit accumulation, vocational credits and degree (qualification)

worthiness would be surveyed and discussed. The material will be

reviewed for relevance to the research question. Global trends will

be explored, while the success and failure of different systems will

be considered in light of the South African context. At the same time

a definition of human capital will be explored. The purpose of this

chapter is to consider accreditation as an element in developing a

benchmark against which non-formal training can be measured. The

role of strategic planning in the development of a CQF will be

investigated via the literature review. Chapter 2 will also address the

philosophical evolution of knowledge and thinking. The concept will

be explored within the principles of quantum physics and

metaphysics to demonstrate how all thinking originates from a

source that is potentially bias. The researcher will also consider the

risk that such bias may have on resultant constructs such as

qualifications.

CHAPTER 3

The methodology followed in this research is considered to be action

research and grounded theory. Action research is a reflective

48

process of progressive problem solving, in a team of practice, but

lead by a person from the group, with the view to analyse and

improve management issues and problems in such an organisation

(Lewin, 1946). Lewin further described action research as a

comparative research methodology on the conditions and effects of

various forms of social action, utilizing a spiral set of steps, each

consisting of planning, action and fact finding about the result of the

action. Such an application of action research suggests that a

grounded theory approach should be followed. Grounded theory

refers to the methodology where data is analysed in concepts and

categories and theory elicited from such data. This will be achieved

by studying the 169 portfolios of evidence, submitted by individuals

from the participating companies. These portfolios will represent

evidence in categories enabling the grounded theory process to be

used. In so doing, the companies will be investigated on an

individual basis. Findings will be scored on a data table, with a view

to eliciting theory on quantification of human capital.

CHAPTER 4

The research findings will be analyzed and discussed in Chapter 4, as

a research report. Different stages of the research will be discussed

and the application interpreted. The feedback from the research will

be considered in three sections – the researcher’s personal

experience, the literature survey and feedback from research

questionnaires. From each section a series of concepts will be

generated and clustered into categories. From the concepts and

categories will themes will emerge.

49

Research objectives will be considered in relation to emerging

themes. Categories will be discussed in relation to the stated

objectives to draw analogies and inform the emerging themes.

The research will also debate the practical implications of an

integrated human capital management system for industry. The

concept of a corporate qualifications framework is investigated as a

system of measuring human capital required within an organization.

The purpose of this chapter is, amongst other to inform the question

whether the NQF can in fact function as the benchmark against

which formal and non-formal training can be measured. This chapter

serves as the formal documentation of data related to the research

question.

CHAPTER 5

In Chapter 5 the emerging themes for an alternative framework for

human capital management is outlined. The chapter will discuss the

themes to emerge from the research. The creation of a framework

whereby non-formal programs can be accommodated within formal

programs will also be presented. The outcomes of in-house training

are compared with the outcomes of formal training programs.

According to Byham (2001:10) modern assessment centers can play

a pivotal role in identifying and maintaining talent within South

African companies. Assessment centre’s can also play a vital role as

performance management and RPL centers, to assist learners with

the accumulation and articulation of credits earned. Quality

assurance of credits obtained by means of RPL assessment, as well

50

as the understanding of project management, is crucial in the

implementation of a CQF. A CQF can also function as a mechanism

to conduct effective and normative skills auditing. By describing a

strategic plan in required human capital format, it enables the

graphic and numeric presentation of a framework that is expressed

within NQF levels and related credits. Actual human capital as

measured in performance terms, can be added to the framework to

present a graphic view of a potential skills gap. This will be done

both individually as well as collectively.

The chapter is also devoted to inform a policy framework whereby

future assessments of non-formal programs can be conducted. The

objective of this chapter is to inform an integrated system whereby

industry learning can be packaged and compared against job

descriptions as well as count as credit towards a qualification.

The possible influence of such a framework on productivity is also to

be considered in this chapter.

CHAPTER 6

This chapter considers the conclusive findings of the research and

reviews whether the research questions have been answered. The

study will be considered successful if the following criteria are met:

The utilization of an organizational strategic plan to

determine required human capital for an organization

Comparing industry experience, workplace learning

competence and non-formal training programs favorably

in content, level and outcomes with each other

51

Development a benchmark system to determine a gap

analysis of skills

Quantifying human capital in relation to a Corporate

Qualifications Framework.

The chapter presents a review of the research objectives in relation

to the emerging themes. The limitations of the study is discussed

whilst a list of further research topics are proposed.

1.8 THE RESEARCH ASSUMPTIONS

The research will be conducted in the services industry. It will

labour under the following assumptions:

o That unit standards and / or credits for training are

acceptable in industry

o That industry accepts the measuring instruments of the

NQF

o That a Corporate Qualifications Framework could be a

practical application of the NQF

o That industry stands to gain from human capital

quantification

o That occupational profiles and job descriptions can have

credit values

o Those education institutions will accept the principle of

non-formal credit accumulation.

52

1.9 CONCLUSION

At the end of 1993, approximately 66 000 school leavers achieved

matric exemption and a further 160 000 passed their senior

certificate in South Africa (Committee on tutorial matters, 1993:5).

These numbers are expected to increase significantly as a result of

rising primary and secondary enrollments and performance

improvements within the South African school system. South African

Universities and Technikons admitted about 105 000 first time

students in 1994. The achievement in the future of an overall growth

in first year admissions and further progress in African student

enrollments, will place considerable strain on the higher education

system given the limited resources available. Despite this growth the

system will not be able to accommodate students who meet the

minimum requirements for entry and who wish to enroll at

universities and universities of technology. This, together with rising

expectations on the part of students for greater access and the

availability of financial aid, creates potential access conflict points.

It is therefore the aim of this study to ensure alternative means of

obtaining education other than formal enrollment at education and

training institutions. The quantification of learning, skill and

education could lead to the quantification of human capital on a

basis equal to the world system of schooling and degrees. Thus, by

ensuring that non-formal learning could count as credit towards a

qualification, the individual has more reason to learn. However, in

such learning, real productive competence is required. Credit is

earned towards a qualification whilst the learner can actually

53

perform at a higher level. The development of a CQF should enable

the attainment of a business vision in a normative and constructive

way. Such clarity should also enable the development of appropriate

learning cultures and promote wellness at large.

The nature of the benchmarks, being degrees, diplomas and

certificates, should be considered in terms of how they are

developed. A qualification ought to enable a learner with an ability to

operate successfully in the economic system. Thus, at the outset,

qualifications development should be driven from a systemic

perspective. Therefore, the process must start with a contextual

understanding and orientation that drives the creation of an

“abundance” mentality. It is no longer enough to simply have skills

in order to do a job. Modern day humans require a new value

whereby economic activity forms part of life. Happiness at work is no

longer acceptable as just a dream. More and more young people are

making career choices based on what would provide them with

growth, development and fulfillment towards self-actualization. It is

within this realm, that future economic planning needs to from.

54

CHAPTER 2: LITERATURE SURVEY

2.1 INTRODUCTION

The objectives of this research as outlined in chapter one are:

1. To demonstrate how a strategic plan can be unpacked into a set

of required competencies that can be aligned to educational

standards. For this, unit standards and / or other education and

training qualifications could be utilized, in part or whole, as

standards of required competency in South Africa.

2. To demonstrate how non-formal training can be assessed against

formal benchmarks and how non-formal programs can become credit

bearing. The study will investigate whether industry experience,

workplace learning, competency and non-formal training programs

compares favorably in content, level and outcomes, to such national

benchmarks reflected in formal education and training programs, in

an attempt to assess and quantify human capital within an

organization.

3. To demonstrate how a benchmark system can be used for a GAP

analysis in human capital management.

4. To demonstrate how a Corporate Qualifications Framework can be

developed whereby industry can quantify and manage human capital

for purposes of performance management.

55

The importance of a literature survey should enable the researcher

to scope the study in more detail. By considering similar and

associated works of other authors, the risk of engaging in a topic

that has been researched already is reduced. Pertaining to the first

objective, the researcher will investigate how a strategic plan can be

unpacked into a set of required competencies that can be aligned to

educational standards. The subject matter impacts various aspects

related to strategic planning, business management, performance

management, human resource management and education and

training.

From a business perspective, the impact of a CQF on strategic

planning needs to be considered as the research investigates the

possibility that the relationship between strategic planning and skills

planning is functioning less than optimally within South Africa.

Similarly, the relationship between performance management,

strategic management and human resource management is to be

explored. In keeping, the relationship between education, training

and certification needs to be compared with strategic needs and

performance management requirements. Foucault (1969) defines

the sequences of relations to objects, subjects and announcements,

as discourse. A discursive formation is the regularities that produce

a discourse. In this research, consideration has to be given to the

discourse and discursive formations that form the realities called

learning. The potential connection between learning and the

metaphysical realm is also to be explored. The purpose of the

literature survey is thus to investigate the views relating to different

56

aspects referred to above and to develop a discourse on the research

question.

In order to develop such a discourse, the concepts of strategic

planning, competence, knowledge and actual skill are considered.

These concepts create a discursive formation and therefore suggest

a discourse.

In order to develop the discourse, the literature study will

investigate the views of various authors. See Annexure G.

The development of knowledge seems to feed the educational

institution that receives its input from the people (industry). The

problem symptom is the challenge to define competence

requirements from industry. The symptomatic solution refers the

development of education programs to address industry needs.

However, education programs don’t always address real industry

needs, thus the side effect. The fundamental solution would be to

explore whether such education actually satisfies human needs.

Education institutions formally conduct research that is utilised in

developing formal learning programs, which could lead to

certification (Burger, 2010).

The system is not, however, very robust or flexible as it does not

really absorb learning in the workplace at a dynamic pace. Thus one

of the wicked problems that need to be investigated within the

education system is the lack of integration of industry, or work

based learning into formal programs (Engel-Hills, Garraway,

Jacobs, Volbrecht, and Winberg, 2011). Innovation itself is probably

57

the most dynamic example of learning, but the innovator does not

receive any academic recognition for such inventions (Engel-Hills, et

al., 2011).

Diagram 2.1 Development of Knowledge

(Source: Systems wiki, 2009)

Pertaining to the third objective, an in depth analysis is needed to

consider the role of norms. Geertz (1958) writes modern myths,

stories that model problem solving strategies and describes how to

do anthropology. The author believes that some educators feel that

it is their duty to teach history as verbal and visual cultural

experiences, and thereby fostering character qualities and

universally shared values in their students. Learning that is

administered in this fashion is mostly repetitive in nature and does

not encourage creativity. Such educators are "hermeneutically

inclined", or simply, "modernists." Post-modernist educators on the

other hand, are inclined to critique theory (Rip, 2004). Geertz

believes that such authors don't essentialize; they politicize.

Convinced that "truth," "character qualities" and "universally shared

values" are just insidiously nice terms for ruling-class tastes, they

58

have turned against pedagogy of inculcation, towards one that

encourages autonomy and diversity. Not surprisingly, these two

groups remain at loggerheads (Solomon, 2003).

Redfield (2002) discusses progress that comes with evolution. It is

such evolution that brings about new ideas, new thinking and new

knowledge. Resultantly, newly required skills and competencies

develop almost every day. As we are living in the information age,

information is developing at an ever-accelerating rate. Thus, our

thinking about thinking itself, about knowledge and skill, should

evolve at a similar pace (Redfield, 2002). As content of knowledge

changes, the skills of how to analyse, deduct and deduce new

knowledge, is therefore ever increasing in value. It gives credence to

the modern day spiritual notion, “to live in the moment”, as the next

one would be very different (Tolle, 2008). In keeping, looking at the

past to determine the future will become increasingly difficult and

should decrease in use (Redfield 2002). According to Kenny

(2006:xiii) “the hallmark of Cartesian dualism was the separation

between mind and matter”. The future demands the skills of reason,

of post “Cartesian” thinking. Although Des Cartes is regarded as the

father of modern philosophy, one of the principles of Cartesian

thinking was the separation of mind and matter. The introduction of

quantum physics and the Copenhagen Interpretation (Arntz, Chasse

and Vicente, 2005) however, proves the relationship between human

consciousness and matter, starting on a sub-atomic level. The

implications of such thinking is important for this research, as this

demonstrates the evolution from pre-reformation thinking, to

reformation, to post-modern thinking about who we are, what we

are and what we could be as a people (Law, 2007). This thinking

59

suggests that “we” are the creators of our reality (Arntz, et al.,

2005). Thus, as creators of our reality, we can determine what

reality should be, decide what it would be and adjust our actions

accordingly to create such a reality (Tolle, 2008). In such context

the implications for learning is profound, as it suggests that learning

ought to drive the principle that people determine their own reality

(Byrne, 2006). The learner is therefore centerfold to a picture that is

changing, based on the learner’s intent. This principle is the premise

of all contemporary learning, as it defines not just who we are,

but what we are. Learning should therefore start at this level - the

departure point being the introduction of a new mentality that

combines human evolution with systems thinking and learning.

Carroll and Mui (2009) suggest such approach is a migration from

existence in the fourth, to that of the fifth dimension. This emerging

dimensional shift suggests a higher consciousness for the human

race and thus inspires a form of learning that resides in the human

soul (Wilson, 1991). Metaphysics is defined as the relationship that

we have with our higher selves, whilst routed in the material world,

hence the desire to discover ourselves (McTaggart, 2001). Plato

(1516) describes this consciousness dilemma as human beings living

in a cave, with their legs and necks chained together, so as not to

see anything but shadows. In the analysis, the author is describing

the inability of mankind to engage in thinking, debate and reasoning,

as being imprisoned by thoughts that are imposed on them. In the

confines of such intellectual prisons, the human mind develops the

ability to reason only in the confines of the jail. Hence, all thoughts

and values develop in context only. The effect is that reason is based

on assumptions (as is all reason) of the reality in which it occurs

(McTaggart, 1991). The work of Plato positions the philosopher as

60

the “thinker” – the human being - that questions, explores, debates

and reasons. Such modern day philosophy is expressed in various

metaphysical works. Bays and Billet (2009:3) refers to “unconscious

consumption” as a state of being where the individual is unaware of

what he is creating. By developing awareness, the human

consciousness gets to see how its action creates reality (Osho,

2001).

The challenge in becoming “aware” brings about understanding of

the current reality and how it has been formed. Such reality

formation has a path of thoughts, leading to the current reality,

much the same as a recipe to create a meal. Thus, the current

education system is a reality that formed in this fashion. During

awareness the mind is to realize how past thoughts created,

amongst others, fear, joy, sadness, wealth, poverty and an

education system (Arntz, et al., 2005). In this realization, the

consciousness or “matrix” from which we operate, determines

reality. Dawson and Allenby (2010) explain how humans are linked

forms of energy, operating in the matrix. The authors elaborate how

the human experience can be changed and new realities formed –

suggesting that a large enough group of individuals, focusing on a

new reality can create such a reality. Accordingly, education norms

will also form and change in this fashion.

Pratt (1992) refers to a concept called "transculturation". In an

electronic age, it is the process whereby subjects select and invent

new understanding from materials transmitted by mass culture. Its

goal is to employ one methodology (hermeneutics) to bootstrap

another (heuretics): that is, to divert interpretation into invention

61

(Ulmer, 2002). The implications for knowledge and subsequent

competency creation are profound. This implies that market trends

can be identified and used to invent new products. As Apple Mac

identifies consumer trends, the innovation team predicts future

needs and develops products to match this anticipated need. Thus,

the anticipated need is actually used to create the next level of

consumer needs. Effectively, using this transculturation, Apple

invents the needs of its customers before it actually happens

(Bloomsberg Businessweek, 2004).

The word “heretics’” originated as a theological term, as the flip side

or repressed other of “hermeneutics”. To interpret scriptures is to

read hermeneutically, whilst to employ scriptures as a means of

invention is to read it heuretically. Hermeneutics was secularized

during the 11th century. It provided methodologies of reading,

legitimated the study of texts and, in effect, created the Renaissance

humanist (Pratt, 1992). Contemporary literary theorists have altered

this orientation by reversing the direction of traditional scholarship.

Instead of taking a position of knowledge they have assumed a

position of ignorance and applied design and thinking strategies to

problems of textual nature. This implies the development of

deductive reasoning in education as opposed to the model of simply

learning what others wrote (Wilson, 1991). New thinking of what

learning content should be and how such knowledge should be

created, follows deductive reasoning (Pratt, 1992). Authors such as

Derrida, Barthes, Deleuze, Serres and Ulmer have in this sense

changed the formula of learning. In fact they have altered its goals

and thus, hermeneutics has become a means to heuretics (Pratt,

1992).

62

The benefits of this type of approach in education ensure that

teachers continue to train students in analysis and critique. Derrida

(2010) refers to a process called "deconstruction,” an approach to

asking the most adventurous and the most risky questions about our

learning, about our institutions and our way of teaching. Kenny

(2008) reflect the view of French born philosopher, Rene Descartes

on learning and education as follows: Descartes frequently set his

views apart from those of his predecessors. Many elements of his

philosophy have precedents in late Aristotelian philosophy, the

revived Stoicism of the 16th century. In his philosophy, Descartes

distinguishes two major points: First, he rejects the analysis of

corporeal substance into matter and form and secondly, he rejects

any appeal to ends — divine or natural — in explaining natural

phenomena. In his theology he therefore insists on “the absolute

freedom of God’s act of creation” (Kenny 2008:187). Thus,

advocating indirectly, that anything is possible. By implication, his

view that corporeal substance does not lead to matter, supports the

observation theory. The observation theory suggests that matter and

reality is formed as a result of human awareness – that the world is

what it is because humans see it as such (Arentz, et al., 2005).

Descartes shaped much of his beliefs due to a series of three

powerful dreams visions that he later claimed, profoundly influenced

his life (Kenny, 2008). In the first of these dreams, Descartes found

himself buffeted and thrown down by a powerful whirlwind while

walking near a college. In the second, he was awakened by an

inexplicable thunder or explosion-like sound in his head, seeing

sparks coming from the stove in his room. In the third dream, he

63

finds a great dictionary and an anthology of ancient Latin poets on

his bedside table. In the latter book, he reads a verse that begins

with, "What path shall I follow in life?" (Kenny 2008:187). Descartes

concluded from these visions that the pursuit of science would prove

to be, for him, the pursuit of true wisdom and a central part of his

life's work. Kenny (2008) discusses the work of Descartes further-

according to Descartes God has laid down the laws of nature. This is

to include, the art of reason. Levett and Dubner (2006) support this

approach and suggest that one should assume nothing but question

everything.

Another philosopher, Benedictus Spinoza, who lived between 1632

and 1677, said: “by substance I understand what is in itself and is

conceived through itself, that is, that whose concept does not

require the concept of another thing, from which it must be formed”

(Law, 2007: 77). Thus, understanding the original, pure thought

process. The impact on education suggests that substance would be

the basis of all knowledge and that all theory and further human

learning stems from this base.

Descartes proceeded to construct a system of knowledge and

discarded perception as unreliable. Instead he believed that

deduction alone is a reliable method of knowledge creation. He

finally established the possibility of acquiring knowledge about the

world based on deduction and perception. In terms of

“epistemology” Descartes will be remembered as having introduced

“foundationalism” (Skirry, 2008). He is quoted as having said;

“reason is the only reliable method of attaining knowledge” (Kenny,

2008: page).

64

Blackburn (2010:163) states hundreds of years later: “There are

many so-called constants in nature. They are the values that cannot

be derived from theory, and so can only be determined by

measurement.” Thus, the notion of investigation or observation to

form knowledge is further supported. Alexander (2005) suggests

that one must dare to be open to question and to explore new ideas.

Such exploration could also be explained when considering research

methodology. When engaged in grounded theory research the

process suggests engaging and interrogating the data to elicit

theory.

Aristotle's writings were the first to create a comprehensive system

of western philosophy, encompassing morality and aesthetics, logic

and science, politics and metaphysics (Law, 2007). Aristotle's views

on the physical sciences profoundly shaped medieval scholarship,

and their influence extended well into the Renaissance, although

they were ultimately replaced by Newtonian physics (Ackrill, 2010).

His works contain the earliest known formal study of logic, which

was incorporated in the late 19th century into modern formal logic.

His ethics, though always influential, gained renewed interest with

the advent of virtue ethics (Ackrill, 2010).

These philosophers are inadvertently examples of some of the first

heuretic thinkers and their views on the creation of knowledge

supported the development and creation of knowledge in a more

natural fashion than is the case today. According to Ulmer (2002)

morphology of methods developed, as all approaches on learning

65

methodologies share a common set of elements, which can be

abbreviated as follows (CATTT):

• Contrast-opposing a new method to an old one

• Analogy-figuration as a tactic of displacement

• Theory-repetition and documentation of newly proposed

methods

• Task-repetition and documentation of the newly proposed

methods

• Telling stories and dramatization of the new method.

Ulmer observes that every method of learning, from dialectics to

surrealism, must itself be represented in some form or genre.

Notwithstanding the value of innovation and learning, as

demonstrated in heuretics and CATT, no certification for such

processes exist in the formal education world (Hellberg, 2011).

In the diagram below the formation of a picture with the use of a

puzzle, attempts to illustrate the phenomenon of morphology.

Individual pieces represent one reality (ontology), but collectively

the pieces of the puzzle present a different reality.

66

Diagram 2.2:Morphology

(Source: http://listverse.com/2009/02/20/10-hilarious-listverse-

comments/)

Knowledge creation and knowledge formation in educational

institutions are driven by research in industry and academic decision

(Veness, 2010). However, innovation, strategic planning and the

development of job descriptions are hardly seen as interactive.

Innovation is quantified in a strategic plan only as a required

competence (Heathfield, 2011). With the introduction of the

Organizing Framework for Occupations, it can be deducted that such

type of thinking should somehow become part of the curriculum of

training (Robertson, 2011). Furthermore the same free-thinking

should relate to being innovative and should be part of all human

capital development initiatives, supported by a well-defined job

description. Such job description then, should function as a

performance standard, and be useful in obtaining formal

qualifications (Moore, 2011). Perhaps there needs to be a system

that translates a strategic plan into a skills plan. When required skills

plans are evident, it implies that the actions needed for success are

67

known to the relevant parties involved in the process of drawing up

a skills plan (Heathfield, 2011). Included in the required skills would

be the ability to think heuretically, or in effect, the ability to bring

innovation to the workplace. Thus, the business manager would

know what to do to be successful. The challenge is then, to

implement the proposed actions. Thus, the quality requirements

would be clear.

One of the “quality management” developments of the 20th century

was the introduction of quality assurance in education, defined as

accreditation. This concept aimed at bringing a sense of

standardization to education in a region and eventually in the world

at large (Oyaya, 2011). However, based on the varying education

systems in the world and the constant change in these systems, it is

fair to observe that the world and its education systems are still

evolving (Modelski, 1995).

Further discussions of how the evolution on knowledge proceeded,

are found in Scharmen (2009:81) in what is called the “genesis of a

new world”. The author explains how the Berlin Wall’s collapse in

1989 gave rise to people feeling that something new was rising from

the rubble. The rise held three elements according to him:

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* A global economic shift

* A network society with a relational shift

* A new cultural-spiritual shift

This phenomenon in itself gave inspiration to many ideas, of which

the development of new structures and systems where just one. This

newfound cultural-spiritual thinking shift was another step in

morphology. Osho (2001) discusses this spirituality as “awareness”.

The author explains his concept of awareness as essential for the

survival of the human race. This awareness refers to becoming more

aware of surroundings and especially, thoughts. Osho (2001)

believes that thought awareness would remind people who they are

and accordingly free them from enslavement of their thought

processes. Hence the drive to develop the quality of the world’s

education and training systems seems more logical. If Gladwell

(2010) is to be considered, this awareness will experience steady

growth until such time as it reaches a “tipping point” after which the

majority of humanity will buy in on the concept. However, a word of

caution comes from Stenger (2000: 345), “We must guard against

making any claim that we possess some special revelationary

equipment that guarantees our insights to be preferred to others”.

De Martini (2002) discusses the evolution of humanity on a personal

level. A detailed plan is suggested to manage the evolution of self

via skills and techniques that can be learnt. The purpose of the

exercise is to open the mind to a level that incorporates a more

spiritual and much more aware sense of existence. Lowenstein

(2005:62) discusses perfect wisdom in a Buddhist sense. The

69

Bodhisattva’s vow is to lead all beings to “nirvana,” a state of bliss,

where the sense of self is diminished. Braden (2008:83) calls this

the “terra incognita”, that what science tells people about their

brains and that which they experience via the brain.

2.2 THE CASE FOR ACCREDITATION IN EDUCATION AND

TRAINING

The motivation for the analysis of accreditation within education and

training resides in the nature and role of accreditation, as the

concept used to determine the role and norm for a skill or education

level (Bear, 1991). One of the results of morphed thinking is the

desire for education to be quality assured. Accreditation therefore

developed as the result of a complex set of values and norms that

evolved in thinking about education (Toor, 2010). Considering the

views of Plato and later authors on metaphysics, it must be

remembered that the reality of accreditation is no more than a

thinking construct, formed on the basis of previous thoughts about

education, standards and perceived quality of learning (Kenny,

2008). Thus, accreditation could be viewed as a result of human

thoughts evolving to a point (Ontology). It is assumed to be a valid

creation in the context of the “thought prison” that Plato refers to

(Kenny, 2008). Thus, thinking follows on thinking and as such,

stimulates and creates further thinking along the same lines. Such

thinking creates a pattern, like a set of dots in the matrix where

people exist. Weisstein (1998) describes the work of Mandelbrot as a

set of mathematical points in a complex plane, the boundary of

which forms a fractal. The fractal is an emerging pattern, a form or

shape that appears like a new reality, a result of thoughts. The

70

Mandelbrot set is a set of complex values of c, for which the orbit of

0, under iteration of the complex quadratic polynomial Zn+1 = zn2 +

c, remains bounded (Friesen, 2000). The Mandelbrot set is named

after Benoît Mandelbrot (Weisstein, 1998), who studied and

popularized the concept of evolving fractals. When computed and

graphed on a complex plane, the Mandelbrot set is seen to have an

elaborate boundary, which, being a fractal, does not simplify at any

given magnification. The Mandelbrot set has become popular outside

mathematics both for its aesthetic appeal and for being a

complicated structure arising from a simple definition, and is one of

the best-known examples of mathematical visualization (Friesen,

2000).

Accordingly, education can be seen as an evolving fractal. As new

information becomes available about education, this is added to the

already existing body of knowledge, thus adding to and changing the

appearance of the accreditation phenomenon, like adding to the

appearance of a fractal.

Diagram 2.3: Fractal Wallpapers

71

(Source:

http://images.search.yahoo.com/search/images?_adv_prop=image&

va=fractal&fr=aaplw&tab=organic&tab=organic&b=91)

The relevance of the above to accreditation in education is that, with

the different views in education as being the “mathematical set of

points in the complex plane”, accreditation forms as a pattern, a

new realty or a fractal- a most elegant solution born from what was

at first observed as a set of random views (Friesen, 2000). However,

caution has to be levied, as this new reality could also be the

foundations of a Platonian prison of thought. Deductive reasoning, as

per the Cartesian approach, suggests the development of knowledge

by means of reason, whilst Plato is one of the earliest thinkers to

realize that thought per say is contextual (Silverman, 2008). If the

original thought of accreditation is thus in any way flawed, the future

development of such thought (idea) would emerge like a fractal,

forming a reality that is incarnating flawed thinking. The work and

intention of Karl Marx (1818) serves as an example of how a

premise was developed and later misconstrued during

implementation. According to Vorhies (1991:11), Marx advocated

the formation of a new social reality called communism. In this

reality, the oppressed masses would be uplifted, ownership of

resources would become that of the community and individualism

would as a result reduce. Capitalism and wealth commanded by

individuals would fall away. However, the Marxist premise failed to

consider how greed would counteract this (Vorhies, 1991). With the

introduction of communism in Russia, the new leader, Lenin, openly

advocated violence to promote his ideology (Lennin, 1917). The

result of communist rule can be seen as a fractal, creating a reality

72

of poverty and neglect for most of the Russian nation (Putin, 2006).

The original envisaged realty of Marx was one of compassion for all,

equality and equity. However, this was used by later communists as

a platform for political reform, to manipulate the masses into

support of an idea that was twisted during implementation, to the

benefit of the few, as was the case before the Russian revolution

(Putin, 2006).

Popper (1945) criticized both Marx and Plato and introduced a new

concept called “Open Society” in which he suggests freedom for the

critical powers of man. He argued that history holds back thinking,

that it acts as a disabler of thought and by implication learning. He

also dismissed the ideas of Plato as foolish and unpractical. Thus,

Popper argues in favour of free-thinking as opposed to following the

rules, values and ideas inherited from generation to generation. This

liberation in thought can be debated in light of apartheid activist,

Steve Biko’s view on freedom (Body-Evans, 2011). Biko believed

that a physical as well as psychological liberation was needed

(Wilson, 2011). Thus, implying that the end of apartheid would

require actual freedom such as the right to vote, whilst an

intellectual freedom would have to follow, whereby the affects of

indoctrination would have to be changed (SACP, 2011). The world

has several examples of societies where this principle of freedom

emerged. In Russia, the communist party replaced the rule of the

Tzar with the objective to introduce a state that would do justice to

philosophers such as Plato and proponents such as Marx (Lucero and

Collum, 1989). However, the implementation failed and it

materialized in years to come that communist rule was as cruel and

greedy as that of their predecessors (Putin, 2006). Thus, although

73

the government changed, little change took place in the thinking of

the society at large (Lucero and Collum, 1989).

In a more recent example, The Zimbabwean region in Africa

practically operates as a modern day totalitarian state. The objective

of the first black government in Zimbabwe was the creation of a

democracy, where people can be free and vote for a democratic

elected government. However, the success of this vision has been

questioned lately. The oppressor changed, but not the social thinking

(Hondora, 2009).

The implications of such thinking, for learning, can be huge, as it

suggests that the same patterns of learning could continue

irrespective of the social, economic or political changes in society

(Pacepa, 2011). Notwithstanding the intent of freedom of thought, of

intellectualism, the shackles of historic ideology could remain

entrenched; resulting in thinking that fails to activate true learning

and subsequently failure to develop competencies envisaged

(Hackett, 1998). It remains to be debated whether accreditation per

say, is a shackle or the result of enlightened thinking. However,

accreditation is considered in this research, as a quantifiable

measure of learning.

Accreditation has various definitions. Bear (1991) defines

accreditation as a separate quality assurance activity that is used to

indicate the level of quality of education. Pharasad and Bhar (2010)

gives an overview of the Indian technical education system and

shows the value of accreditation as quality improvement and quality

assurance of educational programs. Bear (1991) suggests

74

accreditation as a process in which certification of competence,

authority or credibility is presented. The practice of accreditation

differs from country to country. In the United States of America,

organizations that issue credentials or certify third parties against

official standards are themselves formally accredited or certified by

accreditation bodies referred to as "accredited certification bodies”

(United States Department of Education, 2011). The accreditation

process in education and training suggests that the provider of

tuition, content and assessment and moderation, as well as

certification practices, are compliant with pre – determined

benchmarks. Thus, accredited providers are mandated to assess and

certify learners, and have suitable quality assurance policies and

procedures in place to manage the business of teaching and learning

(United States Department of Education, 2011). However,

accreditation practice differs greatly in different countries (Bear,

1991). In South Africa an educational institution must be accredited

in order to function, whereas in certain other countries such as the

United States of America, it is not compulsory. Also, in South Africa

the function of accreditation is under state control as opposed to

America where several non- governmental agencies exist to manage

accreditation matters (Robertson, 2011).

Educational accreditation is also a quality assurance process under

which services and operations of post-secondary educational

institutions or programs are evaluated by an external body to

determine if applicable standards are met (Brittingham, 2010).

If such standards are met in this context, accredited status is

granted by an agency. In most countries in the world, the function of

75

educational accreditation is conducted by a government

organization, such as a ministry of education (Willems, 2006). In the

United States, however, the quality assurance process is

independent of government and performed by private membership

associations (Bear, 1991).

The importance of accreditation in this research lies in the fact that

accreditation provides some degree of quality assurance for the

underlying qualifications and their components (Willems, 2006).

Included in this quality assurance is the notion that modern

qualifications are developed as a result of related industry needs. As

such, the development of the organizing framework for occupations

(OFO) focuses on the profiling of an occupation, from which a

qualification is then developed (Robertson, 2011).

The impact of the OFO and accreditation in South Africa is three fold:

Firstly, it provides a standard from which job performance and

therefore competency can be measured

Secondly, as a competency measure, it provides the

population of job descriptions with effective standards, from

which competencies identified, can be measured

Thirdly, occupational standards and qualification standards

become the same standards (Robertson, 2011).

Accreditation practices define the ultimate standards or benchmarks

against which a measurement could take place. Only with a known

benchmark can there be measurements, deviations or gaps

identified and plans devised to manage such gaps (Crossroads,

76

2011). Educational institutions tend to recognize fellow accredited

institutions, as this creates a basis for comparison (Bear, 1991).

Closely related to accreditation therefore is the issue of how such

institutions conduct cross recognition, or reciprocity.

2.2.1 THE RELEVANCE OF ACCREDITATION TO STUDENTS

According to Brittingham (2010) accreditation in the United States is

a means to assure and improve higher education quality, assisting

institutions and programs using a set of standards developed by

peers. An institution or program that has successfully completed an

accreditation review has in place the needed instructional support,

expertise, student support and other services, to assist students to

achieve their educational goals. Accreditation has assisted to provide

the conditions necessary for the USA to develop diverse, flexible and

robust and often admired higher education systems (Brittingham,

2010).

According to the Association of MBAs (2010) the decision to enroll

for an MBA represents a major commitment, both in terms of time

and money, from the student. Therefore, in a crowded and complex

market, the MBA accreditation provides a reliable list of meticulously

tested programs and ensures that students' investments are

rewarded with the finest business education available. The

association believes that employers and top business recruiters,

looking to acquire the best managers and future business leaders,

know that graduates of their accredited programs have received the

highest quality management education. Accreditation gives business

schools international credibility and status (Bear, 1991). However,

77

the number of MBA qualifications available worldwide is now in the

thousands, and only a small percentage of these would achieve

accreditation if they were submitted to rigorous international criteria

(Brittingham 2010).

The issue of accreditation therefore serves as a comfort to the

learner that the education product he/she is engaged in, is of good

quality. However, students and laymen often make the mistake to

assume that being unaccredited is equal to bad quality (Brittingham,

2010). Thus, although accreditation proves a school to be of quality,

the absence does not prove the opposite, as there are many good

schools that are in fact, not accredited. Furthermore, students

should also not assume that being accredited is equal to being

recognised (Bear, 1991). As there are so many institutions there is

no guarantee that one chosen by a student will be recognized by

another, even if they are both accredited. This enters again the

debate of international and even national, reciprocity. In the USA the

different states do not all recognize the institutions in other states.

There are even situations where accrediting agencies don’t recognize

each other (Bear, 1991).

In this minefield, no student would be blamed for feeling somewhat

lost in making a choice of where to study. The student should best

research the accreditation and subsequent industry recognition, of

any institutions under consideration. Depending on the particular

study field, industry recognition could be a stronger factor than

accreditation. Recognition by other similar institutions should also be

considered (Brittingham, 2010).

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2.2.2 THE RELEVANCE OF ACCREDITATION TO BUSINESS

According to WorldWideLearn (2010) accreditation ensures a basic

level of quality in the education received from an institution. The

author believes it ensures that degrees will be recognized for the

true “achievements” they are. Thus, accreditation for business

implies that “achievements” (competency) could potentially be

benchmarked and thus industry performance could be plotted

against the same, leading to the satisfaction of the third objective,

namely that a gap analysis becomes possible (De Coi, Herder,

Koesling, Lofi, Olmedilla, Papapetrou and Siberski, 2007).

Competence is viewed as effective performance within a

domain/context at different levels of proficiency (Cheetam and

Chivers, 2005). De Coi, et al. (2007) further elaborates that

competencies are described as reusable domain knowledge. They

suggest that a model, representing competencies, describes what a

competence is and how it is composed of sub-competencies. These

competencies are general descriptions. For example, being a good

taxi driver or an expert Oracle database administrator are concepts

with fixed meaning (domain knowledge), independent of which

person possesses such competence. This is important to be noticed,

because competencies are to be referenced from certifications or job

descriptions, in order to stimulate their re-use. De Coi, et al. (2007)

implies that domain knowledge / competence is to be obtained,

amongst others, from qualifications. Thus, if such qualifications are

accredited, the accompanying competencies are recognised formally

as well. Distance-Learning-College-Guide.com (2010) elaborates on

the reasons why qualifications should have accreditation and refer to

some risks of registering for qualifications without accreditation:

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Without accreditation by a nationally recognized accrediting

organization, a school is not eligible to participate in

government student assistance programs. This means that, a

student would not be eligible for federal grant or loan money in

the USA.

Most employers who offer tuition assistance will not reimburse

tuition paid to a school that is not accredited.

Transfer of credits from one school to another, will only be

possible if the student attended an accredited college or

university.

According to the United Kingdom Accreditation Service (UKAS)

(2000) the organization launched an awareness campaign in the

United Kingdom (UK) in November 2000, targeted at business and

Government. The aim of the campaign was to raise the profile of

UKAS and the value of accreditation. The campaign, which is part

funded by full details BIS (formerly known as full details DTI), was

launched by Lord Sainsbury, the former Minister of Science and

Innovation in the UK. In 2007/8, the campaign continued to drive up

levels of awareness as a result of continued support from BIS, closer

relationships with partners and external suppliers and greater

internal resources.

UKAS has made significant progress raising the awareness of

accreditation structures in the UK. This has been achieved through

many initiatives: from senior level meetings, direct mailing of

promotional literatures, inter- and cross-departmental workshops

and presentations, as well as through press releases and events.

Meetings, workshops and follow-up activities have taken place in 18

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different government departments, which have broadened the

network of contacts and positioned accreditation as a solution, to

either supporting or acting as an alternative, to regulation (UKAS,

2010).

Thus, accreditation itself is not a concept that is known and

understood by all. As far as the business community is concerned,

the real requirement is skills, and accreditation is not necessarily

perceived as a quality measurement of skills. According to Trapnell

(2010:68) the accrediting organization Association for Accreditation

of Colleges, Schools and Business (AACSB) was founded in 1916 by

a group of leading business schools with the goal of “enhancing the

quality of management education at a collegiate level”. Since that

time, AACSB has granted business accreditation to 528 institutions

in 30 countries. In addition, AACSB accounting accreditation, an

extension of its business accreditation processes, has been granted

to 168 programs in 5 countries (Trapnell, 2010). AACSB began to

expand its accreditation program internationally in 1995 when it

granted accreditation to the first business school outside of North

America. International growth gained significant momentum in 2000

when the organization committed to a global agenda. As of April

2006, AACSB international business accreditation has been extended

to 85 business schools outside the USA (Trapnell, 2010). The author

suggests that, in a very competitive global market, education

institutions are constantly seeking recognition and differentiation in

order to effectively compete for top students and faculty. AACSB

accreditation has therefore become an important statement to key

constituencies of the quality of a business school’s offering.

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From an external viewpoint, earning internationally recognized

accreditation, informs other schools and external stakeholders (i.e.

employers, prospective and current faculty and students) about the

educational quality derived from being held accountable for

international standards through peer review and self-assessment

processes (Bear, 1991). Furthermore, positive benefits result from

an association and involvement with an international community of

management educators associated with business schools that have

achieved AACSB accreditation (Trapnell, 2010:68). However, in

South Africa, the trend is towards local accreditation as opposed to

international accreditation (Further Education and Training Colleges

Act, 2006). International brands in education such as Comité

International d'Esthétique et de Cosmétologie (CIDESCO, 2010) and

the International Therapy Examination Council (ITEC, 2010), are not

fully recognised by South African authorities. This, for example,

affects the reciprocity of qualifications in the beauty sector

adversely.

For the prospective employer, accreditation can be an indicator of

education and training quality. “Accreditation can also serve as a

selection criterion to assist a company in identifying high-quality

schools from which to recruit talented managers and leaders”

(Trapnell, 2010:68).

2.2.3 ACCREDITATION AND BUSINESS NEEDS

As demonstrated in Diagram 2.1, the issue of knowledge recognition

and generation in business, has become distorted over time.

Thinking appears to be polarized in two directions. On the one hand

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there appears to be the academic school of thought that believes

that all learning should be developed and controlled by the

educationists. The proponents of this theory seems to view the world

as scholarly driven and means to dictate to the rest of the world how

industry should conduct itself (Conway, 2010). The second school of

thought promotes the idea that industry should determine what is

taught, as it is at the forefront to society’s economic need

identification process. Proponents of this theory, or point of view,

seem to think that academic knowledge is impractical and mostly

irrelevant (Web-Institute-for-teachers.com, 2000). Various levels of

intensity of these thinking nodes exist, depending on the individuals

involved.

A possible solution could be a moderated approach that includes

ideas from both sides. As such, Beere (2007) considers the value of

competency based learning in a formal education institution. Chopra

(2009:73) believes that “an enormous amount of energy becomes

available when you give up the need to be right. Relationships

always suffer when there is a need for a right or a wrong”.

Osho (2001) discusses the state of Samadhi, super consciousness

and awareness. In these states the need for right and wrong

disappears and only observation (awareness) remains. Like an

empty canvas, this state produces the opportunity to act from a

point of stillness and objectivity.

Pink (2009) discusses the concept of extrinsic and intrinsic

motivation of individuals. According to Pink a financial incentive or

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reward can cause a de-motivation, as it takes away the reason for a

person to act from the heart.

Thus, if one could connect the thinking of the authors, it appears

that the energy from a state of objectivity (awareness) can be used

as a natural motivator. This motivator is equally applicable in

stimulating the need to learn as what it is in stimulating the need to

earn. Thus, it can be deducted that intrinsic motivators can be used

to stimulate performance.

If industry could therefore use the fact that business learning and

performance can carry qualification credits, individuals would have

more opportunity to act from a self-motivated point. Redfield (1996)

wrote a book called “The Tenth Insight” in which a future vision of

humanity is discussed. The author suggests that the vision needs to

be pursued in order to bring about human evolution. This evolution

is happening in human thought. Hence the change in how we view

knowledge and knowledge creation. In keeping, whatever the

relationship between business and education may be, accreditation

thinking is also evolving.

If ways could be developed to accredited training done in-house, to

obtain credits towards the attainment of qualifications, it may enable

the individual to consolidate personal development, academic

learning and corporate performance. At the moment these issues are

mostly seen as separate. However, as in the case of reality creation,

this view is self-developed and self-imposed by society and can thus

change for the better (Redfield, 1996).

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Demartini (2002:207) believes that “a person’s purpose becomes

clear when guided by the soul.” This may clarify an inspiring

purpose, and enable one to act from a point of personal drive. Hicks

and Hicks (2009) record a channeling from a spirit called Abraham,

in which the question of career choices is discussed. In the debate

the motivation and drive of humans are discussed and reference is

made to how people choose careers. The ability to remain in the

same career for a long time is also questioned. The point of the

debate is again the motivation for growth, for development and in

effect “learning”. However, not only learning as we see it

scholastically, but also learning as we see it spiritually. Such learning

refers to learning at a soul level.

Redfield (2002:17) describes the awareness that Osho refers to as

awakenings. Redfield also believes that human development is linked

to the evolution of the universe itself and also suggests that true

learning comes from direct experience. If this is to be applied in the

workplace it promotes the suggestion to use such experience and

learning towards a formal recognition scenario. The qualification

award itself should be seen as the conclusion, though, as the real

benefit is that such qualification of formalized learning, presents us

with a legitimate model to recognize the achievements of the

individuals in the workplace. As such, Business Dictionary (2011)

defines a qualification as the “Capacity, knowledge, or skill that

matches or suits an occasion, or makes someone eligible for a duty,

office, position, privilege or status. Qualification denotes fitness for

purpose through fulfillment of necessary conditions such as

attainment of a certain age, taking of an oath, completion of

required schooling or training, or acquisition of a degree or diploma.

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Qualification does not necessarily imply “competence.” In quantum

physics the spiritual principle of “life is what you make of it” is

proven by means of the observation principle (Arentz, et al., 2005).

In this experiment, the behaviour of matter is proven to be

dependent on human consciousness (Hawking, 2008).

According to Business Link (2010) training and development are key

ingredients for surviving the economic downturn and ensuring that a

workforce has the skills needed for growth and success. An employer

may have high quality in-house training programs that could be

considered for accreditation on a formal Qualifications Framework to

earn credits. An organization may also want to be recognised as an

awarding organisation. Ball (1989:64) believes that companies often

have employees that perform very well and beyond expectations.

“Often, these employees will not have the best academic

credentials.” Such individuals would do very well if their work-

based learning could count for credits towards qualifications.

According to Kingston (2006) the Leitch report was developed to put

employers at the heart of determining skills and qualifications needs.

This report makes it easier for employers to have their own training

accredited (Kingston, 2006). A number of employers have already

successfully been involved, including McDonald, Network Rail and

Flybe. According to Business Link, these three companies are now

recognised awarding organizations. Others, including Honda have

had their training accredited through working in partnership with

existing awarding organizations. The Leitch Review of Skills was an

independent review by Lord Sandy Leitch, the Chairman of the

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National Employment Panel, commissioned by the British

Government in 2004, to identify the UK’s optimal skills mix for 2020

to maximize economic growth, productivity and social justice and to

set out the balance of responsibility for achieving the required skills

profile and consider the policy framework required to support it. The

report recommended that the UK should raise achievements at all

levels of skills and recommended that it commit to becoming a world

leader in skills by 2020, as benchmarked against the upper quartile

of the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development

(OECD) - effectively a doubling of attainment at most skill levels

(Werquin, 2010).

One of the objectives of businesses training their people, is return on

investment (ROI) (Meyer and Opperman, 2011). Thus,

measurement of such ROI should investigate the following elements:

• Did the training deliver what was expected for the business?

• What further training and development can be implemented to

continue to take the business forward?

• Does the training motivate staff?

• How is its quality assured?

Employer Based Training Accreditation (EBTA) (2011) is about

finding ways to make the impact of in-house training more explicit

(Coeducate Project, 2011). EBTA works with businesses to establish

whether a university can accredit their internal training. It also

supports employers who want to further develop training and build

towards formal national qualifications. Thus the mobility of such

accredited training is also addressed. The practice of accrediting

training by educational institutions is highly suspicious if such

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programs do not articulate or carry credit towards a further

qualification by such institutions. EBTA’s services are supported by

government funding as part of its strategy to support business

growth and development. The real, academic benefit of EBTA is

however that external verification of the quality and standard of in-

house training and matching in-house training to national

qualification standards becomes possible. In addition, the process

can assist in developing capacity to improve skills. Effectively, this

approach thus quantifies or measures non-formal training (EBTA,

2011). The development of such normative skills enables us to

compare, remediate, review and re-develop in order to achieve new

heights of innovation (Charlton, 2008).

2.2.4 VOCATIONAL ACCREDITATION

The term vocation comes from the word “vocare” meaning “to call”

(Business Directory, 2010). It is used to describe an occupation to

which a person is drawn or feeling called for, to fulfill. Thus

vocational accreditation refers to measuring the vocation against a

benchmark. Thus, supporting the notion that the industry or the job

requirement should determine the level of required learning as

opposed to the schooling system (Beere, 2007). However, the

modern application of vocational accreditation does not exclude the

academic notion, but rather embraces the practice thereof (Web-

Institute-for-teachers.com, 2000). Especially the inclusion of specific

educational techniques, thinking skills and quality assurance

methodologies are well represented in modern vocational

accreditation processes (Hong Kong Qualifications Framework,

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2011). As such various models of vocational accreditation are

constantly developing over the world.

According to Bulgarelli (2009) the Council of the European Union

adopted a resolution in November 2002 in Copenhagen for the

promotion of such vocational accreditation. Policy documents

provided the initial impetus for the Copenhagen process, a strategy

that aims to improve the performance, quality and attractiveness of

Vocational Education and Training (VET), focusing on the

development of a single framework for the transparency of

qualifications and competences, credit transfer in VET and quality

assurance. Together, these priorities aim at promoting mutual trust

in training provision and transparency as well as recognition of

competencies and qualifications.

The result is thus establishing a basis for increasing mobility across

the European Union. These priorities have been successively

confirmed by the Maastricht (2004), the Helsinki (2006) and the

Bordeaux (2008) communiqués as well as by the recently approved

council conclusions on a strategic framework for European

cooperation in education and training (Bulgareli, 2009).

Bulgareli (2009) further explains how quality assurance can play a

decisive role in modernizing European VET and improving

performance and attractiveness and thereby achieving better value

for money. Accordingly, many European countries need to increase

VET responsiveness to changing labour market demands, increasing

the effectiveness of VET outcomes in improving the match between

education and training demand and supply. The author believes that

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better levels of employability for the workforce, improved access to

training, especially for vulnerable labour market groups, should

become a high priority.

Accordingly, a common quality assurance framework (CQAF) was

developed in Europe. Member countries where invited to promote

the CQAF. Thus, vocational education enjoys considerable status in

Europe. The question that arises is what the effect of this focus is on

actual output, for example Gross Domestic Production (GDP) and

also GDP per capita. Europe, consisting mostly of developed

countries is focused on vocational education, but also enjoys higher

standard of living than that of developing countries (Bulgarelli,

2009). By combining work based accreditation and vocational

accreditation an interesting phenomenon may develop, as work

based accreditation can then become vocational accreditation. This

enables the accumulation of credits in both the workplace and

classroom, to measure the attainment of qualifications and also, the

level of performance at which a person operates (Capella University,

2011).

The emerging role of workplace learning needs to be highlighted in

view of the above. Workplace learning takes place at the workplace

and is often introduced as workplace training in order to improve

employee skills. Workplace learning can also happen via coaching

and mentoring, observation or by repetition, enabling the

development of an experience base (Kerka, 1998). Knowledge as

well as practice can therefore be developed. In the process, such

organizations may develop learning organization values. According

to the University of Massachusetts (2011) workplace learning is

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offered in various forms, such as supervisory training and

management development. The University of Southern Mississippi

(2011) offers a Masters Degree in Workplace Learning. The

relevance of workplace learning to this research is that such learning

often takes place with little or no formal recognition. It is entirely

possible for workplace learning to be equal in content and level, to

modules in formal qualifications. However, workplace learning

seldom enjoys such recognition.

In South Africa there are two ways to address the problem. Firstly

the workplace could apply to become an accredited provider (SAQA,

2011). Thus, to establish formal quality assurance and alignment to

known or acceptable standards. The second is to outsource the

alignment and quality assurance to an existing provider. This option

requires the provider to ensure alignment of workplace learning to

acceptable standards as well as the introduction of quality assurance

requirements.

Such workplace learning could therefore, possibly become credit

bearing within a formal qualification. Credits could possibly be

accumulated in the workplace that may be transferred to formal

qualifications (Capella University, 2011). The research could possibly

probe the viability of such practice. A question that should be asked

is whether industry would recognize such qualifications? The

administration of such credits would have to be investigated.

Frameworks to align required skills and potential credits would also

have to be developed.

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2.3 THE CASE FOR RECIPROCITY IN EDUCATION AND

TRAINING

Although accreditation could serve as the basis for skills or education

standards, a review of accreditation without considering reciprocity,

is not complete. According to Beach (1906) education reciprocity

followed after trade reciprocity. The practice of reciprocity refers to

the formal / informal recognition of qualifications between

countries or systems (Colten, 1981). In effect, the qualifications of

different countries are “mapped” against each other based on

elements such as content or curriculum, specific outcomes,

assessment criteria and exit level outcomes. Reciprocity in this

research is important as it pertains to the system of recognizing

different educational programs (Tammaro and Weech, 2008).

The University of Kentucky (2010) developed a system to facilitate

the movement of teachers from one state to another. The University

Of Kentucky College Of Education collected the teacher certification

requirements for 50 states within the USA. Accordingly, the

University recognized that different states are continually revising

their teacher certification/licensure rules and requirements. This

system thus facilitates the practice of reciprocity between states.

However, reciprocity is more than simply recognizing qualifications,

it operates as a system that compares the cross recognition of such

qualifications and is also focused on the “how” of the recognition. As

such, the United States Department of Education (2010) believes the

term “reciprocity” is used widely across the country, but that the

true meaning of the term is often overlooked. Reciprocity within the

United States context seems to be a system whereby a

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recommendation for licensure from a state-approved education

training program at an accredited college or university is recognized

in another state, according to the Department of Education in the

United States. The reciprocity is governed by the Interstate

Agreement developed by the National Association of State Directors

of Teacher Education and Certification (NASDTEC) (Plymouth state

University, 2011). However, reciprocity does not guarantee that a

license in one state can be "traded in" for a license in another state

(Plymouth state University, 2011). Thus, decisions of reciprocity

vary from state to state and are not governed by the Interstate

Agreement. According to Mthembu (2001) a South African case

study pertaining to reciprocity concluded that higher education in

developing countries would be destroyed if rampant

internationalization of higher education from developed countries

were not stopped.

Mudimbe (1996) explains the discourse on Africa from an Afrocentric

perspective. According to Hames-Garcia reciprocity could create an

intellectual prison that is operating as a thought factory that may

very well avoid real philosophy from developing and accordingly

constrain thought and learning (Hames-García, 2004).

Taussig (1993) on the other hand, believes that, to become aware of

the west in the eyes and handiwork of its others, to wonder at the

fascination of their fascination, is to abandon border logistics and

enter into the 'second contact' era of the borderland, where 'us' and

'them' lose their polarity and swim in and out of focus.

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Mthembu and Taussig further identified some difficulties to engage in

international education. They alert us to pitfalls and paradoxes of

cross-cultural exchange in a post-colonial era, and therefore, the

fears of internationalization and reciprocity lies in the perceived risk

that the west would indoctrinate the developing world. The Mthembu

approach is earthed in the notion that the developing world should

be allowed its own space to develop and that its students should

study in their own countries only. Litwiller (2009) on the other hand,

considers practical applications between cross-cultural education

programs and their local communities. Against a backdrop of rapid

internationalization in universities and schools nationwide, Litwiller

developed a workshop and guidebook to provide the means to start

thinking more in-depth about the nature of relationships with

community partners.

The first two critics, a South African professor of mathematics and

an American anthropologist, raise questions for USA educators

seeking to internationalize education programs. Although the risks of

reciprocity may not seem onerous, it is best advised to consider

these in the development of reciprocity agreements. Successful

reciprocity should include balanced development and symbiotic

relationships. Such relationships can be assistive, but should avoid

being prescriptive (Taussig, 1993). One such a relationship was

developed between South Africa (via the Services Seta) and the

European Union, pertaining to the cross recognition of qualifications

in hairdressing. The agreement reached, concluded that South

African hairdressing qualifications would be recognised in Europe,

with the proviso that such migrants would do a module on

“entrepreneurship” as part of their continuous professional

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development (CPD) when they work in Europe. At the same time,

people qualified in Europe would be recognised in South Africa, but

would need to do “afro Hair” as part of their CPD, when working in

South Africa (Goosen, 2005). However, not all countries seem to

have the ease of such reciprocity thinking. In some parts of the

world, standards vary hugely from country to country and

sometimes even within countries (Bear, 1991).

In particular, reciprocity in the USA and Canada are often

problematic. According to the Canadian Tourism Human Resource

Council (CTHRC)(2010) the Canadian Tourism Sector should have

better mechanisms for assessing, comparing and recognizing prior

learning to achieve true learner and labour mobility for its non-

regulated occupations. The CTHRC states that accurate, fair and

reliable mechanisms enable educators and learners to assess,

compare and recognize skills and credentials. In keeping, the CTHRC

is building on its existing national occupational standards

and industry-certification program by means of research projects.

The Council further mentions that these projects compare and map

learning outcomes for a variety of educational institutions as well as

industry associations, both nationally and internationally.

The goal is to further the development of protocols, processes and

frameworks to support effective mechanisms for recognizing prior

learning (RPL) within tourism occupations. Such RPL activities are

not limited to Canadian origin but can also come from other

countries (SAQA, 2011). This practice enables and facilitates a

meaningful reciprocity platform. In South Africa, the reciprocity

practice developed into a system whereby the contents of one

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qualification are mapped to another, by means of comparison of the

Curriculum or Unit Standards, Specific Outcomes and Assessment

Criteria (SAQA, 2011). The nature of mapping is determined by

whether the qualification has unit standards or is developed with

academic outcomes only (Tammaro and Weech, 2008). This practice

is not always desirable as the objective of mapping is to achieve

cross recognition and such detailed mapping may highlight details

that differ whilst the overall exit outcomes of the qualification

creates the same set of competencies. Thus, an individual could

have obtained a qualification in one country that differs in finite

content from a similar one in another country (SIT Study Abroad,

2011). However, both the qualifications could serve the same

occupation. In the cosmetology industry, the skills of massage are

taught differently in different countries (Habia, 2010). However, the

qualified masseuse is mostly involved in the same occupation. An

alternative to finite mapping is thus to compare the outcomes

created, as this may achieve the motivation for cross boarder

recognition, or reciprocity (Quality Schools International, 2008).

Competent, certified and qualified individuals provide a skilled labour

force. However, employers need to have a framework to be able to

know how to compare qualifications with one another. Where career

paths are well articulated, it aids in the recruitment, selection and

retention of skilled workers. One such a system is to create an

Organizing Framework for Occupations (OFO). As such, the Canadian

National Occupational Standards into the Tourism Techniques

Articulation Project, aimed at integrating relevant national

occupational standards into the curriculum of Cégep de Saint-

Félicien, and achieving reciprocity between the Canadian Tourism

96

Human Resource Council (CTHRC, 2010) and this Quebec-based

college, allowing students to acquire a variety of management and

occupation-specific skills. Upon graduation, it also leads to the

automatic receipt of an emerit certificate for occupational

knowledge. Individuals who receive this emerit certification could

also receive recognition toward the Tourism Techniques program at

Cégep de Saint-Félicien. As this sets a central benchmark of

occupational standards, the same standards could be used in

measuring the skills and performance of employees.

In the event management industry, the Canadian Tourism Human

Resource Council is leading the development of an “Event

Management Standard”. Occupational standards are the skills,

knowledge and attitudes needed to be considered competent in an

occupation. Standards are created from a detailed occupational

analysis that results in the identification of criteria-based

performance and knowledge requirements for that occupation.

Accordingly the Event Management Body of Knowledge (EMBOK)

model (2010) is a knowledge framework and descriptive summary of

the scope and processes that are used in the management of events.

It is a sequential system reflecting the changing nature of event

management. As this sets the stage for an occupational standard,

later processes in industry where actual skills of employees are

measured against this standard, could be possible. Thus, EMBOK

sets the stage for aligning workplace learning to be translated into

credits in a formal qualification. Thus, a Corporate Qualifications

Framework could be developed; suggesting work based learning to

be recognised as formal credits.

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In 1998, South Africa established the Sector Education and Training

Authorities (SETAs), including the Services SETA and THETA

(Tourism and Hospitality Training Authority), amongst others (Skills

Development Act, 1998). South Africa’s National Qualifications

Framework (NQF) was established, in part, to facilitate the

assessment of the international comparability of standards and

qualifications. According to the International Labour Organization

website both Canada and South Africa have recognized credentials

for the events industry that are based on standards. A comparative

analysis of these standards could therefore further the development

of a model for the events community and events industry in both

countries.

To meet future needs, the Canadian Tourism Human Resource

Council (CTHRC) (2010) suggested the development of a foreign-

credential-recognition (FCR) model. It was suggested that the FCR

model should be developed and connected with the sector’s existing

occupational standards as well as its professional certification

(credential) programs.

In 2005, a comparative study of the CTHRC and the Caribbean

Professional Certification Systems conducted a review of selected

international credential-recognition systems. The study considered

the systems and identified what is common amongst them and

relevant to Canada. Similar work has been conducted on establishing

joint recognition systems between South Africa and the European

Union in skills that include industries such as Marketing and

Hairdressing (Goosen: 2005). Where the Canadian study aimed at a

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better understanding of assessment and recognition methodology,

the South African- European project aimed at comparing outcomes.

In the South African model, the issues not covered in respective

qualifications, where listed as Continuous Professional Development

issues in the countries where issues where lacking. This enabled the

formation of a reciprocity system that created cross boarder and

international recognition for learners and employees with such

qualifications. The Canadian project also looked at identifying

concerns associated with establishing an FCR model (CTHRC, 2010).

Although much related work has been done in South Africa, the

South African drive in terms of a formal FCR model still needs to be

formalized.

According to the University of Kentucky (2010) the rules in the case

for cosmetology licensing reciprocity agreements between the USA

and Canada are confusing. While there are certainly some reciprocity

agreements, they aren't consistent throughout the USA states and

Canadian provinces. Within the USA, all 50 states require

cosmetologists to be licensed; however, requirements differ from

one state to another. Most requires one to have a high school

diploma plus a diploma from a state-licensed cosmetology school or

beauty college. Thereafter the candidate must pass a state licensing

examination. By comparison, in Canada, some provinces don't

require cosmetologists to have a license, while others have very

strict licensing requirements. To transfer a license from Canada to

the USA, the employee has to consider the rules in each state.

Certain states request that you re-take the written or practical exam

before being granted a license, others require additional beauty

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training courses. Some have relaxed reciprocity regulations and

require only an application, proof of current license and a fee.

The same holds true for Canada - each province has different

licensing requirements and different rules regarding reciprocity.

Alberta gives credit for education received elsewhere, but requires

an exam to get a license. Manitoba and Newfoundland, by contrast,

review each application individually and then decide whether to

grant reciprocity based on that cosmetologist's education and

experience.

Certain international organizations offer certifications that are

recognized by multiple countries. “Habia”, a government appointed

standards setting body in the United Kingdom, partnered with the

National Cosmetology Association in the USA to form the

International Cosmetology Licensing Organization in 2006. Australia,

New Zealand, Canada, South Africa, and 34 USA states have agreed

to recognize certain qualifications granted by Habia (Habia, 2010).

Within the USA, the National Accreditation Commission of

Cosmetology Arts and Sciences (NACCAS) have worked to establish

reciprocity agreements with other countries, including Canada

(Habia, 2010).

Reuven and Gilad (2010) examine the existence of reciprocity in

online learning networks. The study analyzed the response relations

between participants in 75 online learning networks at the Open

University of Israel. Specifically, the study investigated whether the

observed reciprocity of responses can be explained by the random

selection of partners to respond to, or whether a reciprocal selection

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process of partners is at work. The finding was that reciprocal

selection processes are at work in online learning networks. The

effect is thus the same as in traditional education, namely that

reciprocity does not happen unless driven by interested parties.

As such, the approach of non- interference in African Universities,

would lead to low and possibly no recognition of African based

qualifications by the developed Western world. As the developing

world stands to gain by reciprocity, the drive for, especially South

Africa, should be towards more, as opposed to less, reciprocity

(Taussig, 1993). The cross border development of occupational

standards that are at least similar in nature and deliverables,

enables cross boarder alignment of occupational profiles and hence,

of occupational qualifications (Robertson, 2011). These standards

are then easily used to develop job descriptions that can also apply

across borders. As these standards are becoming uniform, it is

easier to compare such between countries. Especially in scenarios

where a company operates as a multinational, the same standards

can apply for the same job although operating in different countries.

Furthermore, for industries where the service or product is more

homogenous, cross border standards make it easier to compare

performance. Thus, skills comparison becomes easier.

One of the ways in which reciprocity can be addressed, is the

development of designations. The Purchasing Management

Association of Canada (PMAC) has signed agreements with the

Institute for Supply Management (ISM) in the USA and the

Chartered Institute of Purchasing and Supply (CIPS) in the UK to

provide reciprocity between each organization’s globally recognized

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designation (PMAC, 2011). According to the agreement, supply chain

management professionals, holding one designation, are eligible to

receive the reciprocal designations, provided they meet specific

criteria. The organization suggests that, possessing a reciprocal

designation will enhance the international recognition of this skill-

set.

Designations are industry awards for the recognition of a person

when functioning at a certain level. Examples of designations include

that of the Charted Accountant. Designations are not qualifications,

but often require that a person holds a certain qualification; has a

defined level of industry related experience and adhere to a code of

conduct - thus, showing evidence of operating at a certain level

(SAQA, 2011). This approach could be very beneficial if incorporated

within the reciprocity debate. Designations can be used to cross

recognize individuals and their performance across many platforms

where qualifications may differ. The test is whether the person

operates continuously at the required standard of the occupation

(Exponential SA, 2011).

2.4 CORPORATE QUALIFICATIONS FRAMEWORKS

Once the workplace is aligned to formal standards, albeit by

becoming a provider or aligning with one, programs offered at the

workplace could possibly become credit bearing. As such, these

programs obtain a position on the National Qualifications

Framework. However, it may be unlikely that the workplace learning

would constitute an entire qualification. As such, the learning so

undertaken, could potentially present a partial qualification that

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addresses the direct needs of the workplace (Hong Kong Education

Bureau, 2008). Such collection of training programs could constitute

a Corporate Qualifications Framework for the workplace. Learners

and employees could possibly even plan on how these credits on the

Corporate Qualifications Framework could be attained. Such credits

will then possibly be earned for career advancement, as training, but

also as credits towards a formal qualification (Capella University,

2011).

2.4.1 CREDIT ACCUMULATION

Where a strategic plan can be used to determine the required human

capital in business and industry skills used as credit in such

benchmarks, it could be possible to use such a system to determine

normative skills gaps. This implies that there will be a need to collect

and accumulate credits on a peace meal basis. Aberystwyth

University (2011) discusses a concept called “Credit Accumulation

and Transfer Schemes (CATS)”which is used by universities in the

United Kingdom to monitor, record and reward “passage through a

modular degree course and to facilitate movement between courses

and institutions.” It is also possible to equate CATS with the Scottish

Credit and Qualifications Framework (SCQF, 2011) and the European

Credit Transfer and Accumulation System (ECTS) (2011).

According to Adam (2000) the task of the Leiria International

Seminar was to discuss workable alternatives and build consensus

about Credit Accumulation and Transfer Systems. This seminar was

one of the international seminars agreed to in Helsinki. The purpose

of this seminar was to discuss credit accumulation and transfer

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systems in the context of the Bologna process and the linkages to

lifelong learning. Adam suggests that the experience gained by the

European Credit Transfer System (ECTS) provided the framework for

much of the national and international development of credit

accumulation and transfer and the internationalization of higher

education.

During the same seminar, the Minister of Education from Portugal

stressed the need for more student and teacher mobility to aid

European integration. The minister also felt that there needed to be

more harmonization between different national educational policies.

A further point mentioned by Adam was that the European education

system needs to improve its international competitiveness and the

employability of its citizens. This would also lead to more

competition between European systems, which would improve and

sharpen individual educational provisions. The worldwide acceptance

of European degrees and diplomas requires better information about

their content, competencies and academic and professional

objectives (Adam, 2000).

Heath (2007) developed a theory about the “stickiness” of ideas and

concepts. The author investigates the aspects that make a story

stick (remembered). Credit accumulation could be one such a factor.

If a person knew that company training and experience could count

as credit towards a qualification, the “stickiness” of what they do,

should increase. Thus, such employees would be more motivated to

do well in both the training and the work base performance.

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Adam also mentions that the Bologna Declaration called for the

“adoption of a system of easily readable and comparable degrees.”

The aim of the seminar was to work towards the creation of a

European credit system. A subsequent speaker at the seminar,

Volker Gehmlich presented a vision of a global credit accumulation

and transfer system that could encompass adult education,

vocational and professional training, higher education and lifelong

learning.

From the discussions of the European Union, the efforts of the

United Kingdom in workplace and vocational accreditation, plus the

South African impetus in the establishment of concepts related to

RPL and OFO, it seems that the agenda for credit accumulation

intends to favor of credit accumulation from non-formal sources. The

benefits for such a system could be plenty. However, if the contents

of learning are going to be driven and dominated by the traditional

educational institutions, a global bureaucratic system may very well

be the only result. The system would need flexibility in terms of the

contents so as to accommodate credits for innovation. In addition,

accredited workplace learning with proper articulation towards

qualifications, may very well be considered (Adam, 2000).

2.5 POLITICAL OBJECTIVES OF EDUCATION

Mantashe (2010:1) indicated that “education will solve poverty,

unemployment and growing inequalities in South Africa.” It should

enable people to break the chain of poverty and contribute to the

economy. Similarly The Freedom Charter (1955) stated that basic

education would be free and compulsory for all children.

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A word of caution for free education however, is always wise. A

distinction must be made between the right for education and

obligation that goes along with such a right. The risk is that society

may develop a belief that its education is the responsibility of

government, leading to the pendulum swinging in favor of the

scholastic control of our learning (Beere, 2007). This brings the

added risk that governments can manipulate education to suit their

own agendas and as such, undermine the value of democracy.

The doors of learning and culture shall be opened, setting out

principles of free, universal, compulsory and equal education,

promising to wipe out illiteracy, and undertaking to remove all

cultural, sporting and educational color bars (Mantashe, 2010). The

first 12 years of learning must be able to give children the basic

skills to enter the labour market. It must never happen that a child

is deprived of education because of their family's economic status

(Freedom Charter: 10). A compelling argument in favour of (at least

basic) free education is the fact that uneducated citizens are in

nobody’s interest, not government, not society and certainly not the

uneducated individual. However, the degree of control of the

scholastic system, which is ultimately government controlled, is to

be debated. In this instance the right or wrong answer is not the

point, but debate and engagement is (Sachs, 2005). As long as we

can, as a human race, allow ourselves to be intellectually challenged

into heuretic thinking, our chances of evolving into more advanced

beings, are improved (Heathfield, 2011).

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By allowing governments to decide what we read, believe and what

we learn, we surrender who we are. We surrender our sole purpose

and we lose our motivation to learn, to grow and to act, both

spiritually and corporately (Osho, 2001). Therefore, the success and

failure of our education system itself rests on its ability to be open

and to allow itself to be challenged.

Thus, for the education system to be successful in the future, it will

need to be more sophisticated than it is today (Squire, 2009). If we

are to address the education backlog, the skills gap, poverty and

productivity, in South Africa, the system will need to be more flexible

and adaptive. Van der Linde (2002) discusses the role of good

educational management in a changing South Africa. Commitments

to change should include the following:

1. All qualifications should demonstrate a sense of understanding

towards industry driven needs

2. Scholastic educational needs will have to be considered,

including aspects related to pedagogy and didactics

3. Innovation skills will have to be a priority in developing

qualifications and heuretic thinking will have to be evident in

qualifications

4. Certain industry-based training and workplace learning will

have to carry educational credits and a qualification will have

to indicate how credit can be accumulated over time

5. Quality Assurance would have to be relevant, flexible and

implementable

6. Qualifications would have to become the benchmark of

contextualization and move away from being recognitions for

knowledge only.

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The role of government in education should be to bring education to

the masses (SACP, 2011). One of the ways in which education can

be brought to the masses, is the massification of delivery via e-

learning. Various e-learning systems are available and many of the

world’s leading universities are using a wide variety of such systems.

Wankel and Kinglsley (2009) present a detailed discussion of the use

of the system called “Second Life”. In this system, a virtual

university can be built in virtual space. The net effect is a virtual

university. Anderson (2007) explains how, with the use of the

Internet, even small quantities of products such as music can be

sold, as storage cost are almost nothing on the servers where it is

kept. The same applies to online education.

2.6 STRATEGIC PLANNING AND SKILLS NEEDS

The connection between strategic planning and skills needs should

be that strategy defines required skills (Duggan, 1999). Such

required skills should, if heuretic thinking applies, include systems

requirements like innovation. Some universities have a workplace

component in their degree structure. This component allows the

student to bring a component of workplace activity into the degree,

as credits (Ixion, 2010). This requirement goes a long way in

addressing the dynamics of the degree process and can create a link

between strategic planning and skills needs (Skiff,2002).

Furthermore, the determination of the actual skills level and

subsequent gaps, defines the relationship between skills levels and

strategic planning (Duggan, 1999).

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According to Barber (2010) in the state of Victoria, the Skills for

Growth program is a strategic planning and workforce development

program, run by the Government of Victoria, providing small and

medium businesses in the State of Victoria with free access to skilled

business consultants and to employee training opportunities. The

goal of the program is to help small and medium business owners

achieve greater levels of near-term and long-term success by

mapping out their business' key goals and priorities and evaluating -

and closing - capability gaps in their workforce. Key benefits that the

Skills for Growth program is meant to create for participating

businesses include:

• Superior business performance and productivity

• Increased workforce efficiency and effectiveness

• Enhanced capacity for innovation

• Expanded range of employee capabilities

• Reduced overall costs

All of which, of course, lead to the realization of the ultimate benefit

for businesses - improved profits (Barber, 2010). After a business

registers with the Skills for Growth program and selects a Service

Provider that best suits its needs, the Service Provider assigns an

independent workforce planning and training specialist who contacts

the business owner and arranges for an on-site visit. Workforce

planning and training specialists are required to have completed a

Training and Assessment (TAA) course as well as an accredited

course on Assessing Informal Learning (AIL).

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Barber (2010) lists the following steps as part of the first phase of

the Skills for Growth program:

Phase 1

• Completion of a high-level business analysis that looks at,

among other things, the strategic direction of the business

• Assessment of the skills and training needs of employees as

they relate to the business' strategic direction

• Development of a Workplace Training and Action Plan that

identifies business and employee skills needs and that

recommends referrals to relevant training programs and

learning opportunities.

There are no costs associated with participating in the first phase.

Phase 2

The second phase of the program unfolds only if the business owner

or manager chooses to proceed with the training recommendations

(which are accompanied by three quotes).

Following, are the steps identified within the second phase of the

Skills for Growth program:

• Facilitation of staff placement into training with an accredited

training organization

• Completion of a follow-up review after staff have completed

training - or have undergone at least three months of training

- and of a Skills for Growth report which must be reviewed and

approved by the business (any employees hired by the

business after the initial review receive individual training

plans).

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Strategic planning and skills needs should have a direct connection

(Skiff, 2002). Skills needs ought to be a function of intended,

strategic business direction and long term planning. Care has to be

taken not to have a short term only approach. As the new age

requirements for knowledge management are emerging, it is

becoming evident that innovation and the ability to re-invent the

business constantly, is a dire need (Fujio Cho, 2011). In order to live

in the new world, the legacy of this generation should be the

creation of education systems that serves business needs, to take

people through the 21st century. At the moment the world is plagued

by economic dissatisfaction (European Journal of Political research,

2011). In the UK conversations about spending cuts dominate the

political debate (Fox News, 2010). In Europe, particularly Greece,

riots are a regular occurrence in defiance of economic policy

(Klystron, 2011). In Africa, poverty remains a problem in a post-

colonial era (Global Issues, 2010).

If anything is evident from the world economic situation, it is that

the education system has failed to produce a society that can

engage in meaningful activity to satisfy even its most basic needs

(Squire, 2009). A radical, violent change is needed in thinking about

education. According to Brown (2005) a skills revolution is required

before any economic revolution will ever be successful.

Stevens (1994:230) explains a concept of how people can be subject

to the forces of their “dragons.” One such a dragon, the greed

dragon, causes the individual to develop an un-satisfied sense of

wanting. So much so, that all sense of what is already achieved is

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lost and the view of a “half empty glass” remains. For South Africa,

given its past, this is particularly profound. One of the legacies of

apartheid is the negative emotional scares that it has left its citizens

with (Jaruzel, 2008). Education could be a powerful instrument in

this equation. However, if it fails to act as a system where

motivation can be developed, it is doomed. One such a very simple

way is the development of a system such as RPL, credit

accumulation and designations (SAQA, 2011).

Training and education in the future would have to be developed in

such a way that the needs of the organisation and its growth are

clearly accommodated (Skiff, 2002). In addition, curricula would

have to serve the need for personal development and foster skills in

thinking, innovation, value systems and self-management.

Structurally the qualification would need to consist of different

components, so that the learner has the benefit of building the skills

base at his/her own pace (McLernon and Hughes, 2004).

2.7 BENCHMARKING OF SKILLS AND COMPETENCE

Houron (2008:1) states: “Whatever the size or nature of your

organization, the ideal is to move your business from one of

"excellence to significance." Reaching this goal involves an

understanding that talent is the foundation of business success. The

author lists helpful guidelines to maximize the effectiveness of

benchmarking:

• Select an assessment that was designed and validated to

be relevant to the relevant industry, and only choose

instruments that conform to the Standards for Educational and

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Psychological Testing and the Uniform Guidelines on Employee

Selection Procedures.

• Benchmark employees on skills, not personality traits.

Skills are applied constructs, while personality traits are often

abstract. Personality traits are not synonymous with skills or

competencies.

• Large sample sizes are not necessary to conduct valid

benchmarking exercises.

• Consult with Industrial and Organizational Psychology

professionals when interpreting and applying benchmark data.

Always include a professional with strong expertise in the use

and interpretation of the assessment used for benchmarking.

The value of assessment and benchmarking transcends recruitment.

Together, they are investments that provide a strong competitive

edge by driving the most valuable asset - human capital. Therefore,

the selection and benchmarking of employees are crucially important

(Pisello, 2010). The importance of the development of the right

profile cannot be overstated. Traditionally the skills needed for

business were all identifiable up front. In the future, one of the

required factors will be that management will need the skills to not

only deal with change, but also to cause it, to seek it and to

implement it as such (Skiff, 2002).

Zander (2002) believes we live in a world of measurement. The

author elaborates further in exploring the connection between

awareness and measurement. Zander’s argument culminates in

developing an awareness of the limitless potential of the human race

suggesting once more that perhaps we could re-look what we

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measure. In the South African society, the benchmarking of skills

and competencies can be regulated in terms of a variety of existing

standards (SAQA, 2011). In the FET and HET sectors there are

various qualifications that can be used as a standard. Any

qualification is, per se, a standard of skill and competency. This

standard can, although not always easily, be unpacked and used in

more finite scenario’s, such as job descriptions. The notion to link a

qualification to a job or profession is not new (Robertson, 2011). For

example, a medical doctor has to have a specific degree and

practical experience before being able to function in a medical

position. In the accounting profession the requirements from various

employers for the financial manager position, has been a person with

a Charted Accountant status. However, having a qualification or a

certain skills level, is no guarantee that a person will perform

consistently at a required level (Exponential SA, 2011).

2.8 SKILLS, PERFORMANCE AND CERTIFICATION

If a strategic plan can be used to determine the required human

capital, and industry experience is used as credit in an integrated

system, it implies that there could be a link between skills,

performance and eventually, certification (Skiff, 2002). Skill (techne

in Greek) is used to denote expertise developed in the course of

training and experience. It includes not only trade and craft skills as

acquired by apprenticeship, but high-grade performance in many

fields, such as professional practice, the arts, games and athletics

(Gregory, 1987:715). The performer of the task should match the

demands of a task. In order to perform a task, a strategy for

implementation must be developed.

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According to Gregory (1987:715) there are three main parts to a

skill:

• Perception of object or events - perceiving all relevant factors

• Choice of response - making a decision

• Execution of the choice made - normally requires motor

coordination and timing

Senge (2010:15) discusses the development of industry and notes

that the world industrialization boasts great success. However, due

to this success, certain economic and social challenges developed

over time. It is this very level of achievement that would require the

human race to develop a radical change in the way the world is

viewed. This in itself requires a new skills set. Thus, if our economic

thinking about what we achieve has to change, then so does our

thinking about our performance. Not just how well we perform, but

at what do we perform? This proposed change would suggest that

we measure other things as what we did in the past. In keeping, our

award system and recognition of achievement will need to alter

(Senge, 2010). Once this type of thinking evolves, the certification of

the players would also need to change, hopefully for the better.

Drucker (1993) argued that a skill could not be explained in words, it

could only be demonstrated. Thus, the only way to learn a skill in

the past was through apprenticeship and experience. However, with

the introduction of unit standards, skills can now be described,

defined and documented in finite detail (Robertson, 2011).

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Furthermore, it can also be assessed, measured and counted. It can

even be mapped against similar skills, on an international basis.

Wade and Parent (2002) explore the mix of organizational and

technical skills demanded of Webmasters, and the degree to which

those skills influence job performance. The study was composed of

two parts. First, a job-content analysis of 800 Webmaster positions

was conducted in order to determine the mix of skills demanded of

Webmasters by employers. Secondly, a survey of 232 Webmasters

was undertaken to test the relationships between the skills identified

in the first phase of the study and job performance. The job-content

analysis suggested that employers seek technical skills over

organizational skills, and, in contrast, the survey results showed that

Webmasters regard organizational skills as most important in

performing their jobs.

The establishment of an empirical link between job skills, workplace

learning and job performance opens the field to further research

related to skills required by information systems personnel.

Middleton (2010:59) believes that talent is either over estimated or

undervalued. Thus, the measurement of skills and performance

becomes even more important.

The connection between skills, performance and certification should

be a continuous line. Required skills should be defined in relation to

what is needed for business success. These required skills ought to

function as the performance benchmark for industry as well as for

the contents of qualifications (Skiff, 2002). When compliance to the

job performance is met, it implies the individual is competent. This

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supports the compliance of the standard with educational

requirements, such as having the appropriate knowledge base.

Collectively these elements imply competency that may be certified,

for purposes of a qualification (Plymouth State University, 2011).

2.9 CONCLUSION

The integration of the research objectives suggests the use of a

framework where business objectives are used as the guidelines to

design competence objectives. Clustered together, this competence

set constitutes a job description, a benchmark from which industry

experience and also learning objectives can be deduced. Thus, to

measure against this benchmark could enable performance

management and the formalizing of learning objectives (Houron,

2008). In essence this approach suggests a framework where

education, learning and workplace performance are measured all in

one (Lategan, 2001).

The question remains whether the notion of a CQF can be

implemented in industry. The focus of this research is to probe the

possibility by working with a sample of companies, to ascertain the

acceptability of a CQF.

The question of the research is fourfold:

1. To assess whether an organizational strategic plan can be utilised

to determine the required human capital for an organization.

2. To determine whether industry experience, workplace learning,

competence and non-formal training programs could be compared

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compares favorably in content, level, and outcomes with each

other.

3. To determine whether a benchmark system exist to determine a

gap analysis of skills.

4. To determine if industry can qualify human capital in relation to a

Corporate Qualifications framework.

Debate on knowledge,

skills, education and

competency (heretic

thinking).

Evolution of

knowledge

Business

Planning

Analysed origins of

knowledge

development. Inform

view and area to

research.

Debate how business planning

is conducted at the moment

pertaining to skills needed.

Analyse skills

required and

suggest research on

how required skills

could be developed.

Required

human

capital

versus as

actual

human

capital

Debate how required

Human capital can be used

as benchmark to

performance manage

actual human capital

Analyse actual

skills, its

development and

suggest research on

how to view in

future

Business

objectives

originates

from market

needs

Debate on how business

generates knowledge

Analyse how

business

knowledge can be

formalised

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Diagram 2.4 Literature Survey

In compiling the literature survey the structure of the survey

addressed the evolution of thought on knowledge creation and

management over time. The process started with the identification of

views on knowledge and followed on to debate and analyse the

origin of knowledge with a view to inform the area of research. An

important notion of contextual determination was highlighted to

demonstrate that all knowledge development is based on a premise.

The consciousness of humans determine matter, thus ultimately al

truth is in the eye of the beholder. The issue was illuminated in light

of the Copenhagen observation and the influence of mind over

matter (Arentz, et al., 2005). Business planning is discussed and

probed with a view on how business planning is conducted pertaining

to skills needs, exploring how to define required human capital. The

comparison between required and actual human capital suggests

that required human capital may be used as a benchmark to

performance manage actual human capital (Skiff, 2002).

In the literature survey, an attempt has been made to illustrate and

discuss the evolution of knowledge itself. The overview starts with

the advent of theology and the Aristotelian approach, when

knowledge to the masses was forbidden and transgressors

prosecuted. With the ages came change such as the contribution of

Rene Descartes, who no longer accepted blind faith and introduced

the age of reason. This was the start of “heuretic” thinking (Ulmer,

2002). This gave rise to the understanding of knowledge on the

basis of two schools of thought:

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blind faith and interpretation, where knowledge was simply

passed along and accepted, and

heuretic thinking that introduced reason, debate, interpretation

and even innovation.

As a result of the two very opposing forces, a third school of

thought, “morphology” evolved. Ulmer (2002) refers to the

introduction of a common set of elements and suggests,

inadvertently, a system where some knowledge is accepted and

some interpreted. However, the effect on the education system of

the world was more complex. Traditional educators felt that they

knew best and thus wanted to own the right to develop education

programs accordingly. At the same time industry needs changed

much faster than what had been incorporated into educational

programs. Thus, through the ages, it seems that knowledge had

been quantified on an indirect, unsatisfactory basis towards industry.

Hence, corporate training was introduced to fill the gap that the

education system could not. The introduction of accreditation for

education added to norms but also to complexity (Bear, 191). Both

educational and industry schools of thought wanted more input into

the system of development. The morphed results are that modern

qualifications should be designed to accommodate educational

principles, industry needs and learner flexibility (such as credit

accumulation and workplace credits). Industry, at the same time,

should consider a system to manage its total learning. Such total

learning could introduce a system whereby the organizational

objective are pursued, but would also enable the same pursuit to be

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used as credits for formal learning (McLernon and Hughes, 2004).

The question remains whether this can be implemented in industry.

The focus of this research is to probe the possibility by working with

a sample of companies, to ascertain the acceptability of a CQF.

The literature survey concludes with the question, how can business

training be formalized, and suggests an industry probe with a

sample of companies. The approach by business, the international

debate and the drive by government in the establishment of SAQA

and its subsequent initiatives, are all indicative of the need for a

normative system of education and training in South Africa. The

overall trend that is emerging seems to be for a system where

education can be measured and benchmarked in industry (Skiff,

2002). However, care has to be taken in the development of such

norms and benchmarks, as these are themselves, the result of

structured thinking, based on historical values of what education

should be. Economically, society desire a level of satisfaction that

refers to issues such as housing, running water, electricity and

decent work. All of these desires are in fact issues of normative

values (Williams, 2000). In order to achieve these desires, society

and individuals need a certain level of skill. Society at large does not

experience a satisfaction of its needs (Williams, 2000). However,

through education and training, new and better skills can be

developed to improve such need satisfaction.

The development of a new mentality is eminent, and in fact, a

requirement, if we are to transform society. Within the current

qualification structure, in South Africa, non-relevance is

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demonstrated by the skills taught at institutions of teaching. Critical

thinking, system thinking, understanding of self in relation to the

world and not even to mention, spiritual consciousness, are all

absent in the development of the mind of the learner. Therefore in

the absence of a contextual awareness, the individual exists in a

vacuum of senselessness.

CHAPTER 3: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 OVERVIEW

According to North Central Regional Education Library (2011:1)

“action research is inquiry or research in the context of focused

efforts to improve the quality of an organization and its

performance. It is typically designed and conducted by practitioners

who analyze the data to improve their own practice. Action research

can be done by individuals or by teams of colleagues. The team

approach is called collaborative inquiry.”

Ferrance (2000:2) states; “implicit in the term action research is the

idea that teachers will begin a cycle of posing questions, gathering

data, reflecting and deciding on a course of action. When these

decisions begin to change the environment, a different set of

circumstances appears with different problems posed, which require

a new look.” Action research projects are started with a particular

problem to solve. However, the answers may lead to more

questions.

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Diagram 3.1: The Action Research Cycle

(Source: O’Brien, 1998)

http://www.web.net/~robrien/papers/arfinal.html

The proposed methodology to be followed in this research is

considered to be action research, as the activity will consist of a

cycle of posing questions, gathering data, reflection and deciding on

a course of action. For this reason action research is a reflective

process of progressive problem solving in a team of practice, but

lead by a person from the group, with the view to analyse and

improve management issues and problems within an organisation

(Lewin, 1946). In this research, a series of questions are posed to a

selection of companies, pertaining to their ability to plot required

skills against their strategic plans. Lewin further described action

research as a comparative research methodology including the

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conditions and effects of various forms of social action, utilizing a

spiral set of steps, each consisting of planning, action and fact

finding about the result of the action. Accordingly, the results of the

questions will be compared to each other. As this comparison is

made, it is anticipated that observations will be made and feedback

from companies will give rise to more questions. Torbert (2004)

introduced the use of “developmental action inquiry” as a research

methodology, as reflected tin Diagram 3.2

Diagram 3.2: Developmental Action Enquiry

(Source: O’Brien, 1998)

http://www.web.net/~robrien/papers/arfinal.html

This methodology is a way of conducting action research.

Accordingly, the potential development of a CQF, could ascribe to

these views in the following ways:

a) The research process is reflective in as much as it “reflects” or

considers the position of learning, skills and competency from

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various perspectives. These should include the hermeneutics

as well as heuretic schools of thought. The methodology

should further reflect on the role of future qualifications with

job descriptions, including standards and benchmarks related

to education.

b) The research also investigates the relationships between

strategic planning, required human capital and actual human

capital and related skills gaps, in a systematic way. Data is to

be collected on these relationships and the development of

theory is anticipated from such data.

c) The potential CQF could possibly serve as an emergent theory.

This may suggest a management system that informs business

decisions about skills needs in a normative way, thus forming

theory emerging from the data.

Field research (Cohen, 2011) originated from anthropology and

is sometimes also known as either participant research, or

“ethnography” (Cohen, 2010). The term “field research” is also

used by industry as a generic reference to collecting or

creating information outside of a laboratory or typical

workplace (Baker, 1988). Accordingly, the process suggested

for this research, also involves field research and direct

observations. Participant observations, data collection, and

survey research are examples of field research activities.

Accordingly, the research will focus on a systematic

methodology of generating theory from data (Baker, 1988).

The research starts with a particular set of data or facts and

investigates emerging theory from such data. Thus the

research is “grounded” on existing data (Borgatti, 2011). The

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approach of generating theory from data is referred to as a

“grounded theory”.

According to Borgatti (2011) grounded theory is a theory that

is developed from a corpus of data. Thus, grounded theory is

not theory deducted from grand theory, as it takes a case

rather than variable perspective (Glasser other authors 1967).

For purposes of this research, each of the participating

companies will constitute a different case. Different cases are

made for the unique companies in this research. Each

company has a set of variables that interact to produce certain

results. The objective is to develop a generic system whereby

such a business could manage the balance between required

and actual human capital. The question is thus whether a set

of (grounded) data could be identified from which a theory

could emerge.

According to Dick (2011) grounded theory begins with a

research situation. In such research the “situation” is reflected

in the research question. The research is conducted mainly via

questioning, observation, conversation and interviewing. The

process is driven by constant comparison and triangulation.

Thus, theory emerges. In this research, interrogation of data

to develop theory is suggested via the following questioning

process:

Can a strategic plan be utilised in determining the required

human capital for a business?

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If so, following from such potential results, the question to

follow is whether the required human capital can be broken

down into meaningful jobs.

The next question is whether such jobs could be aligned to

educational standards or competencies?

If the previous questions are affirmative, the researcher will

investigate whether specific jobs can be aligned to standards,

functioning as a benchmark for both performance management

as well as educational credit?

If the answers to all the above questions are positive, the next

question could be whether the collective application of the

above-mentioned activities provides a system whereby a

company has a framework within which to manage its human

capital and skills levels.

According to Dick (2005) grounded theory is an emergent

methodology. Glaser, Strauss and Corbin are three published

authors on grounded theory as discussed by Mills, Bonner and

Francis, (2006). The authors suggest that constructivist grounded

theory is a popular method for research studies primarily in the

disciplines of psychology, education and nursing. They find Strauss

and Corbin’s texts on grounded theory to possess a discernable

thread of constructivism in their approach to inquiry. Charmaz

(2001) explains constructivist grounded theory as a process where

the researcher engages in data collection, analysis of such data and

rendering of participants’ experiences into grounded theory.

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Grounded theory can therefore be considered a methodological spiral

that started with Glaser and Strauss’ original text. The variety of

epistemological positions that grounded theorists adopt are located

at various points on this spiral and are reflective of their underlying

ontologies (Mills, Bonner and Francis, 2006).

According to Glasser and Strauss (1967) the major strategy used in

grounded theory is the general method of comparative analysis. The

authors suggest that much of current research is primarily the

verification and expansion of existing theory or the development of

theory through logical deduction rather than from the experimental

data itself. Dick (2005) believes that grounded theory begins with a

research situation. “Within that situation, your task as researcher is

to understand what is happening there and how the players manage

their roles. You will mostly do this through observation,

conversation and interview. After each bout of data collection you

note down the key issues: this I have labeled "note-taking".

Constant comparison is at the heart of the process” (Dick, 2005:2).

In this research, the research “situation” is defined in the research

“question”. The research is indeed focused on determining “what is

happening “in the context as well as investigating the roles that

participants play in the process of exploring the research process.

Observation plays a very important role, as it is anticipated that the

research question will highlight new questions and make

observations not previously known (O’Brien, 1998).

Data collection in this research will use a variant of the note taking

practice. A more structured questioning and interviewing system is

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suggested to collect data. Comparison of findings would be

important, as the research question is addressing an issue that

pertains to a collective rather than individual finding. Glasser, and

Strauss (1967: 5) argue that the “adequacy of a theory can't be

divorced from the process of creating it”. Accordingly in this

research, it is anticipated that theory will emerge from data, in the

sense that patterns will be observed, creating more questions and

potentially more theory.

Dick (2005) continues to explain that the grounded theory process

compares interview (or other data) to interview (or other

data). Theory is anticipated to emerge directly after each category

of questioning. The author suggests that, when theory begins to

emerge, data to theory comparison should start. As such, it is

anticipated that the questions asked (data collection) in this

research, will lead to the identification of certain findings (emerging

theory) and observations. The results of this comparison are to be

written down. This “note taking” is known as coding. The

researcher’s task is to identify categories (roughly equivalent to

themes or variables) and their properties (sub-categories) (Dick,

2005). In this research it is anticipated that such categories will

consist of questions that generate data on the applicability of

qualifications frameworks in the sample of companies that will

participate.

During coding, certain theoretical propositions should occur. For

example, these should indicate a bias for or against the development

of qualification frameworks, as the formation of theory. These may

be about links between categories, or about a core category. As the

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categories and properties emerge, the theory emerges. Such

emergence could be equated to the formation of fractals as

discussed in chapter 2. Another step would be to write notes about it

- called “memoing” (WorldiQ, 2011).

Once the core category and its linked categories start to saturate

they no longer need to be added to the theory formation. In this

research it is expected that theory will emerge from data after

investigation of data presented from the participating companies.

After the attainment of the theory, it is expected that additional data

sources be considered in an attempt to strengthen the theory

emerging at that point in time. In other words, more data does not

change the theory, nor does it add to the theory, but rather confirms

the same theory.

At this stage the research should move to sorting. The researcher

should group memos, like with like, and sequence them in whatever

order will make the theory clear. As this study will be using pre-

defined categories, it is expected that theory will emerge from the

total data presented as opposed to data gathered from single

companies in the study. The literature is accessed as it becomes

relevant. It is not given special treatment. Glaser and Strauss

(1967) makes the point that most research, including qualitative

research, is hypothesis testing. However, in this instance there is no

hypothesis, but a research question.

According to Dick (2005) a grounded theory study works through the

following mostly-overlapping phases. In short, data collection, note-

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taking, coding and memoing occur simultaneously from the

beginning. Sorting occurs when all categories are saturated.

Diagram 3.3 Overlapping Phases of Research

(Source: Dick,2005),

http;//www.scu.edu.au/schools/gcm/ar/grounded.html

Writing occurs after sorting. Dick (2005) further suggests that the

researcher can be flexible, thus does not need to follow the elements

of grounded theory exactly. In this study deviations will be made as

mentioned, pertaining to memoing. The theory is emergent, thus

the methods can be emergent too (Glaser, 1998).

What most differentiates grounded theory from much other research

methodologies is that it is explicitly emergent and thus

constructivist (Mills, et al., 2006). It does not test a hypothesis. It

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sets out to find what theory accounts for the research situation as it

is. In this respect it is action research: the aim is to understand

the research situation (Dick, 2005).

The objective is to discover the theory implicit in the data (Glasser,

1998). This distinction between "emergence and forcing", as Glaser

suggests, is fundamental to understanding the methodology. Dick

(2005) also believes that grounded theory has its own sources of

rigor. Thus, it is responsive to the situation in which the research is

done. As such, there is a continuing search for evidence that

disconfirms the emerging theory. In this research, this notion will

not be pursued, as the disconfirmation will happen naturally where

negative answers to questions are discovered. It is driven by the

data in such a way that the final shape of the theory is likely to

provide a good fit to the situation. Glaser (1998) suggests two

criteria for judging the adequacy of the emerging theory; namely

that it fits the situation and that it works. Thus, the intention is that

it assists in the efficiency of business.

Observation can deliver a great deal of information towards theory

formation. Observations can be made during interviews and

questionnaires – leading to development of theory. Although any

data collection method can be used, this research is gathering

information via questionnaires and observations made by

participants in such questionnaires. Focus groups can also be used

in other qualitative research and are suited to grounded theory. As

such, the possibility of focus groups may be explored in this

research. However, as theory emerges from data, the need for such

focus groups (or not) will also emerge. Informal conversation, group

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feedback analysis, or any other individual or group activity, which

yields data, is considered the same (Baker, 1988). The possibility is

thus open ended.

Glaser (1998) recommends against recording or taking notes during

an interview of another data collection session. No such recording is

anticipated for this research. Key-word notes may be taken during

the interviews. However, it will be based on need and observation

and not predetermined. Such notes will be converted to themes

afterwards. Memoing will also take place as and when needed. The

flexible approach is justified in terms of the pre-determined

categories and questions. The benefits of that will be the managing

of the emerging theory. Coding will also be easier as it will enable to

compare like with like.

In this research, the questionnaire probes a process to elicit a series

of questions such as:

What is going on here?

What is the situation?

How is the situation being managed?

Therefore, what categories are suggested?

In grounded theory a category is a theme that extracts sense of

what an informant has said. It is interpreted in the light of the

situation studied and the emerging theory. After a time one category

will be found to emerge with high frequency of mention, and will

appear to be connected to many of the other categories, which are

emerging. This is considered the core category (Borgatti,

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2011). Normally it is hazardous to choose a core category too early

in the data collection. However, when it is clear that one category is

mentioned with high frequency and is well connected to other

categories, it is safe to adopt this as the core category (Borgatti,

2011). This research is anticipated to identify such categories in the

questionnaire, as the categories are identified via the research

questions. When a core category has been identified, the researcher

can cease coding of any sentences, which do not relate to it. In

most instances coding rapidly becomes more efficient as the study

progresses. At some point the researcher will code for the core

category, other connected categories and properties of both. Any

identified connections between categories are recorded in memos

(Borgatti, 2011).

When collecting and interpreting data about a particular category, a

point of diminishing returns will eventually be reached. Eventually

interviews or questions add nothing to what is already known about

a category. It is anticipated that this principle will apply in this

research as the questioning and investigation is of similar nature

between the possible participating companies (Dick, 2005).

In using grounded theory methodology it is assumed that the theory

is concealed in data to be discovered. Coding makes some of its

components visible. Memoing adds the relationships, which link the

categories to each other. The next task is to decide how to structure

the report to communicate the theory, thus called sorting. This

provides the basis for the anticipated theory (Milles, et al., 2006).

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In this study, the research situation is defined upfront and as such

indicated the literature that may have an impact on the research.

Accordingly, the literature study addressed issues surrounding the

research and the scenario in which the theory could emerge. It could

be suggested that literature was treated as data upfront. However, it

is observed that literature surveys in grounded theory based

research could in fact follow research activity, as opposed to

traditional research where literature is surveyed first.

Constant comparison remains a core process of grounded theory

(Dick, 2005). A key issue is how you treat apparent disagreement

between emerging theory and the literature. According to Glasser,

and Strauss (1967) most research today is designed to verify

existing theories and not to generate new ones. Researchers extract

knowledge from existing "grand theories" rather than explore new

areas not covered by existing theories. In this research less

emphasis is placed on extracting knowledge from existing theory and

more emphasis on extracting theory from data. Glasser, and Strauss

(1967) suggests that the existing research culture emphasizes and

reveres good scientific, quantitative verification studies and

downplays more qualitative studies whose objective is theory

generation. Accordingly, most theory is apparently generated

through logical deduction from past studies and knowledge and not

from the data itself.

"In discovering theory, one generates conceptual categories or their

properties from evidence, then the evidence from which the category

emerged is used to illustrate the concept" (Glasser, and Strauss

1967:23).

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Grounded theory can appear in various forms. "Grounded theory can

be presented either as a well-codified set of propositions or in a

running theoretical discussion, using conceptual categories and their

properties" (Glasser, and Strauss 1967:31). This research uses the

question and discussion format, as it is often easier to interpret and

deduct theory.

It is anticipated that the categories will begin to form patterns and

interrelations which will ultimately form the core of the emerging

theory. Building grounded theory requires an interactive process of

data collection, note taking, coding, analysis and planning what to

study next. The researcher needs to be theoretically sensitive as

he/she is collecting and coding data to sense where the data is

taking the research process and what to do next.

The saturation point is reached when the additional information no

longer lead to additional theory formation. Saturation can also occur

in different categories, thus making it possible for the research to

move on to other categories. This practice allows for the systematic

identification of the existence of theory.

Ontology is a systematic account of such existence (Sowa, 2005).

Thus, the discovery of answers to the above research questions,

may suggest a systematic discovery of the existence of an idea or

concept related to a corporate qualifications framework. Sowa

(2005) describes the subject of ontology as the categories of things

that exist or may exist in some domain. The product of such a study

is called ontology. Ontology is thus the types of things that are

assumed to exist in a domain of interest. As such, the ontology of

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the researcher is the environment of learning, the recognition of

such learning, the norms pertaining to such learning and the

systems of quantifying such learning. Grounded theory as the

systematic extraction of data to emerge new theory, thus

contributes to ontology continuously.

Walonick (1992) states that a system is characterized by the

interactions of its components and the non-linearity of those

interactions. Accordingly, the researcher anticipates that this

research will culminate in a new ontology. The research is therefore

aimed at creating knowledge in a systematic way that can later be

documented. Thus, the epistemology, or philosophical theory of

knowledge, which considers how we know what we know, is

addressed.

According to Colorado State University (2010) the world’s most

important research is not found in libraries, but in the field.

Information regarding the relevance of human learning and

quantification of learning will be collected by developing a

questionnaire to identify the link between required in the workplace

and the strategic plan (Ontology). The purpose of the proposed

questionnaire is to gather data on how (epistemology) companies

actually conduct their skills planning in relation to their strategic

objectives.

The objectives of the research is to demonstrate how a strategic plan

can be unpacked into a set of required competencies that can be

aligned to educational standards, to demonstrate how non-formal

training can be assessed against formal benchmarks and how non-

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formal programs can become credit bearing, and to demonstrate

how a Corporate Qualifications Framework can be developed

whereby to quantify and manage human capital for purposes of

performance management.

Such a framework should also enable companies to be robust,

flexible and innovative, in qualifying their human capital. Currently

corporates within South Africa are often utilising Training Needs

Analysis (TNA) to quantify their human capital. Such ontology is,

however, focused on creating training based on what the individual

needs, versus what the business needs.

In this study, a team of 2 field assistants will be trained and briefed

on the process of collecting data from the identified population. The

field assistants will be recruited on the basis of the following criteria:

A graduate qualification in business

Evidence of skills in human capital management

Evidence of effective communication skills

The ability to work with people

A high level of analytical skills

The ability to conduct field research

Evidence of effective time management skills

The proposed research will follow the grounded theory approach.

Once all the data has been gathered (data collection and note

taking) from the different companies, the researcher will analyse the

sets of data (coding) as related to each of the companies

(Memoing). This analysis is to take place in the form of extracting

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information from the participating companies that nominated and

sponsored individuals to attend and complete training in skills

development (Categorising). All of these individuals will submit a

portfolio of evidence in which the application of a CQF could be

analysed. During the engagement process the researcher will need

to ascertain the existence of a company strategy and business

related planning processes for each company (Ontology).

Once the strategic plan is analysed the researcher will need to

analyse how each company “unpacked“such a plan into required

human capital (Epistemology). The required human capital will then

be used to develop job descriptions by allocating tasks to such job

descriptions. Once a job description is compiled the researcher will

need to gather evidence from the companies regarding how the

occupants of such jobs, if any, were performing within these jobs

(Constant comparison).

It is suggested that the performance management systems utilised

by the companies have to meet the following criteria:

Measuring competence against agreed standard(s) –constant

comparison

Utilizing a normative system to equate competence in relation

to standard(s) – constant comparison

Presenting an analysis of competence demonstrating potential

performance or skills gaps (Grounded theory and ontology

emerges)

Suggesting ways of identifying and closing a skills gap

(Sorting, saturating and reporting)

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Evidence is to be displayed of how required skills are aligned to a

strategic plan (Epistemology). At the same time the related

education requirements, also need to be identified.

A CQF could in view of the above, potentially function as a system to

manage the levels of human capital in an organisation and to align

the business objectives of a strategic plan to specific job

descriptions, should the emerging theory confirm the research

questions. The job descriptions should be benchmarked against

known and agreed standards, thus creating a standard against which

job performance, competence and qualifications are managed

(Robertson, 2011). This process unpacks the road map of grounded

theory in this research. Constant comparison, memoing, categorizing

and sorting is anticipated in developing ontology about the

quantification of human capital.

3.2 DATA GATERING AND ANALYSIS

3.2.1 DATA GATHERING

Pandit (1996) explains how the grounded theory approach advocates

the use of multiple data sources to stimulate the emergence of

theory. Pandit further quotes Glaser and Strauss (1967: 65): “ In

theoretical sampling, no one kind of data on a category nor

technique for data collection is necessarily appropriate. Different

kinds of data give the analyst different views or vantage points from

which to understand a category and to develop its properties”. The

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different views are referred to as slices of data. Accordingly, the

authors argue that, although a researcher may choose to use only

technique of data collection, theoretical sampling for saturation of a

category allows for a broader investigation, in which there are no

limits to the techniques of data collection, the way they are used, or

the types of data acquired.

Pandit continues to stat that the use of multiple data sources

enhances construct validity and reliability. The latter is further

enhanced through the preparation of a case study database, which is

a formal assembly of evidence distinct from the case study report

(Pandit, 1996). In this research, each company could be viewed as

such a case study. Every company is indeed distinct from its

potential case study report. Pandit is further supported in this notion

by Yin (1989). The author states that every case study project

should strive to develop a formal, retrievable database, so that in

principle, other investigators can review the evidence directly and

not be limited to the written reports. In this research the reports per

company will consist of the populated questionnaires. Such reports

are anticipated to also serve as detailed information per company

and could be used for other grounded research if so required.

Pandit suggests the development of a rigorous data collection

protocol by employing multiple data collection methods. Qualitative

and quantitative data collection can be used in systematically

establishing a case study database. It is anticipated that

(questionnaires), documentary sources will be treated like sets of

field notes. Analysis and category generation will be developed from

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questionnaires. This in turn will lead to the emergence of a

theoretical framework.

3.2.2 DATA ORDERING PHASE

“The arraying of events into a chronology permits the investigator to

determine causal events over time, because the basic sequence of a

cause and its effect cannot be temporally inverted. However, unlike

the more general time-series approaches, the chronology is likely to

cover many different types of variables and not be limited to a single

independent or dependent variable” (Yin, 1989:119). It is

anticipated that the data in this research will follow a chronology.

Consider the questioning process mentioned above. This suggested

chronology is anticipated to create a process of analysis to

saturation, leading to sorting and reporting on the different

categories that should emerge from the questionnaires.

Element Description

Phenomenon The occurrence of learning in all walks of life. The fragmented,

unrecognized nature of learning. Workplace learning. Accreditation and

reciprocity.

Causal

Relationships

The relationship of strategic planning to skills required. The relationship

of such skills to formal education. The relationship of skills to workplace

performance. The relationship of workplace learning and performance to

accreditation. The relationship that all elements have to each other in

total, culminating into a possible framework.

Context The legal framework in which learning, education, training and

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Table 3.1 The Framework of Relationships

Borgatti (2011) suggests a system called Axial Coding. In this

process, the author relates categories to each other via a process of

inductive and deductive thinking. In this research, the axial coding is

anticipated to serve accordingly. The categories considered via the

Questioning process not only enables a chronology, but also enables

identification of the relationship that categories have with each

other. Thus, grounded theory considers causal relationships and fit

things into a basic framework of relationships. In this research the

frame consists of the following elements:

Table 3.1: The Framework of Relationships

3.2.3 DATA ANALYSIS

competency development operates. The needs of industry. The rights

and needs of individuals. The role of quantifying all learning. The

possibility of credit accumulation and accredited work based learning.

Intervening

conditions

What hampers the conditions? What can be done to connect categories?

Action

Strategies

The action that the research is performing to extract theory from data.

The use of the questionnaires to determine categories, coding and

eventually theory.

Consequences The anticipated framework, the emergent theory. The additional

observations pertaining to learning.

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Data analysis starts with the research question that is to be

answered by analyzing the data generated in the study. The origin of

the data is therefore important, as it addresses the opinions and

practice of the selected companies as respondents under review in

the study (Dick, 2005).

In the course of organizing the data in this study, certain trends are

anticipated to emerge that can be highlighted in order to address the

research question (Borgatti, 2011). These include whether the

companies have strategic plans and whether jobs in such companies

are aligned with the strategic plans. Skills gaps are further analysed

in relation to the same jobs and strategic plans. Data analysis is the

activity in which the raw data so obtained is organized so that

useful information can be deduced from it (Pandit, 1996). The raw

data in this study takes the form of a questionnaire, interview

responses and workshop observations. In its raw form, the

information can only be useful on a comparative basis. In the data

analysis process, the raw data is ordered in a way that will be useful

(Borgatti, 2011). Survey results are to be tallied, to evidence the

number of responses (Wisegeek, 2010). In answering the research

question, more observation could be stimulated by the data analysis

itself, possibly leading to additional deductions to what was asked in

the questionnaire. This will be followed by organizing data in a way

that supports the logical flow towards the answer. Spreadsheets,

graphs and charts can be used to consider data from a number of

different perspectives in order to categorize and define the different

variables of the study. Data analysis is the process used to evaluate

the raw data and extract information from it. Data will be obtained

from a number of different organisations. This data will then be used

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to develop an evaluation that the researcher can use to make

informed decisions. The data table will become a visual instrument

comprised of named columns and rows that is used to arrange

information. The data table will be used to organize disparate data,

as well as to permit data to be easily manipulated and analyzed.

Causal Conditions

Phenomenon

Context

Intervening Conditions

Action / Interaction

Strategies

Consequences

Diagram 3.4: The Paradigm Model

Source: Pandit (1996). http://www.nova.edu/ssss/QR/QR2-

4/pandit.html#yin

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In this research data will be tabulated in a spreadsheet format,

known as data tables. Data tables generally present numerical data

inside of a grid format. However, they can also be used to present

text, Internet hyperlinks, or even images. Data tables are beneficial

as information retrieval devices. Since data tables are created with

the aid of computer technology, they often produce results that are

more accurate than those produced via manual calculation (Dick,

2005).

What are the Data Analysis Methods?

According to Gode, 2010) According to Gode the term 'data analysis

methods' commonly refers to qualitative data analysis methods.

Gode further defines 15 types of data analysis methods:

1. Typology: It's basically a classification system or methodology,

taken from patterns, themes or other kinds of groups of data. This

type of method implements the thought that, ideally, categories

should be mutually exclusive and exhaustive, if possible.

2. Taxonomy: This method is complex classification containing

multiple levels of conceptions or abstractions. Higher levels include

lower levels forming superordinate and subordinate categories.

3. Constant Comparison/Grounded Theory: This method was

developed in the 60s and has the following steps:

• Look at the document to be analyzed, such as a field note.

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• Identify parameters to categorize events and behavior, which

will be named and coded on document.

• Code comparison will help find consistencies and deviations.

This is done until categories saturate and no new codes

related to it are formed.

• Finally, certain categories become centrally focused categories

more commonly known as core categories. These cores

categories are made subjects of case study.

4. Analytic Induction: Here, an event is studied and a hypothetical

statement is developed of whatever happened. Other similar events

are studied and check if they fit the hypothesis. If they don't, there's

a need to revise the hypothesis. Eventually hypotheses is developed

that supports all the observed cases.

5. Logical Analysis/Matrix Analysis: It is basically an outline of

generalized causation, logical reasoning process, etc. It mostly

includes use of flow charts, diagrams, etc. to graphically represent

these, as well as written descriptions.

6. Quasi-statistics: More often than not, enumeration is used in

this method to provide manifest for categories formed or to

determine if observations are untrue.

7. Event Analysis/Micro-analysis: In this method, importance is

on finding an accurate beginnings and endings of events by

determining specific boundaries or points that mark boundaries or

events.

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8. Metaphorical Analysis: Here, it's required to go on with various

metaphors while checking how well they correspond with what is

being observed. Participant may be asked for metaphors, which they

should interpret.

9. Domain Analysis: This type of analysis is mostly used to

describe social and cultural situations, and patterns within it. Start

by emphasizing what is social situation to participants while they can

interrelate it with cultural meanings.

10. Hermeneutical Analysis: The word 'hermeneutical' literally

means not going for objective meaning of text, but interpreting the

text for the people involved in the situation. This is done by never

overemphasizing self in an analysis, instead reiterating the people's

story. Meaning of any content resides in author intent, context, and

the reader - finding themes and relating these three is involved in

this method.

11. Discourse analysis: This method usually involves video taping

of events so that they can be played over and over again for deeper

analysis.

12. Semiotics: Here, we determine how signs and symbols are

related to their meanings while they are being constructed. The

analysis needs to assume that the meaning is not inherent and it

comes from other things related to the symbol.

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13. Content Analysis: This method is never used with video and it

is only qualitative in development of categories. Standard rules of

categorization in content analysis include:

• Identifying a chunk of data to be analyzed at a time (whether

it is a line, a sentence, a phrase, and a paragraph.

• Categories must be inclusive and mutually exclusive.

• Should have precisely defined properties.

• All data fits some category i.e. exhaustive categorization.

14. Phenomenology/Heuristic Analysis: There is emphasis on

individual explanation to people. This method emphasizes the effects

of research and the researcher's personal experience. The term

"phenomenology" is used to describe a researcher's experience.

15. Narrative Analysis: Also known as 'Discourse analysis', this

method gives more importance to interaction. How the narrator

chooses to tell frame wise that is how he/she will be perceived.

Always compare ideas while avoiding revealing negatives about self.

This analysis can involve study of literature or journals or folklore

In this study various components of the above methods will be

considered. The combination of data analysis methods will allow for

flexibility and interpretation. Meaningful deductions will therefore be

made from data.

The findings of the research will be documented in a way that

enables comparative results of companies to be compared with each

other. The following items will be included as part of the document:

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1. Name of Company

2. Full Name of participant

3. Contact details

4. Was a Strategic Plan completed?

5. Company consent to implement a CQF

6. Functional objectives

7. Job descriptions

8. Educational standards assigned to job descriptions

9. Total number of jobs required

10. Performance management plan

11. Staff competency report

12. Skills gaps

13. Project plan for closure of skills gap

3.3 DEVELOPMENT OF THE RESEARCH QUESTIONAIRE

The questionnaire will be developed with the following research

objectives in mind:

a) Review of the reflective process, from analyzing the strategic

plan, to developing specific job profiles.

b) Aligning human capital planning with Skills Development

Facilitator unit standards.

c) Collecting relevant information required developing a corporate

qualifications framework.

d) Informing the research question and enabling the creation of a

Corporate Qualifications framework.

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The research is considered to be participatory, as management of

companies would have the opportunity to make inputs into the

questionnaire. Such input would be in the form of opinions about the

usability of the proposed system. Such comments would be analysed

and discussed to demonstrate the use of the framework. From the

responses extracts and comments will be analysed, in grounded

theory fashion and utilized to interpret suggestions relevant to

findings of the implementation of a CQF as emergent theory.

PARTICPANTS

Company management – Owner, Human Resource Manager, General

Manager or Skills Development Facilitator. The role of these

individuals consists of, amongst others, planning and managing skills

development initiatives and as such, the skills gap (Sources of data).

Research assistant– Trained individual to assist in gathering data.

The role of research assistant is to collect, interpret and present data

in order for the researcher to draw conclusions.

The selection of companies participating in this study will be based

on specific factors including the following:

a) Companies will need to be part of the Service Sector and a

levy-paying member of the Service Seta.

b) Companies will have to have had participated in previous

Service Seta programs, especially Quality Management

Systems training (QMS) and Skills Development training (SDF)

during the last 36 months. This requirement is included to

ensure that participating companies do not withdraw during

the process due to a lack of motivation, or capacity.

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Furthermore, the development of an approved QMS implies

that an organisation already has a strategic plan in place

supported by relevant human resource. The CQF is aimed at

improvement and not invention.

c) Companies will have to express at least an informal desire to

participate in “Continuous Professional Development“ and must

have identified the development and implementation of a CQF

as desirable for their organizations. SDF training should also

have been completed. From a total of 400 potential qualifying

companies, 169 qualifying companies were identified.

3.4 THE DEVELOPMENT OF KNOWLEDGE AND

UNDERSTANDING

Bellinger (2004) states that wisdom arises when one understands

the foundational principles responsible for the patterns representing

information. He continues by stating that wisdom, even more so

than knowledge, tends to create its own context. Knowledge

development will be stimulated by the development of a system that

addresses the management of corporate and personal skills in a

normative way. It could also enable thinking and understanding of

how work based accreditation can operate in South Africa, whilst

the international objectives of credit accumulation and transfer

are scrutinized in more detail.

3.5 CONCLUSION

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Considering the research question, action research and in

particularly grounded theory is a suitable research methodology for

this study. The research intends to investigate and analyse data with

a view to deduct theory from such data. Grounded theory operates

on the basis of interrogating data in a process that stimulates the

extraction of data from it. In this study, the purpose is to develop

theory that enables the quantification of human capital in industry.

With the use of a grounded theory approach, a research

phenomenon is identified, being human capital.

During the research process concepts, categories and themes, as

emerging from the literature review and focus group discussions, will

be identified by the researcher in an attempt to formalize more

detailed questions to be incorporated into the proposed

questionnaire. This will allow for further triangulation of data

gathered during the study. The data gathered from the questionnaire

will then also be coded, categorized and analyzed.

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CHAPTER 4: RESEARCH REPORT

4.1 BACKGROUND

The research findings are presented and discussed in this Chapter

against the background of information gathered from the

researcher’s professional work experience, the literature review and

industry as related to workplace learning. This chapter informs the

foundation for developing a system whereby a CQF can be

implemented by, amongst other, utilizing the strategic plan of a

company to co-determine the required human capital for an

organisation and align such required human capital to educational

standards. To notion of using non-formal training as credit bearing in

formal training is discussed as part of benchmark system to be used

for GAP analysis. An integrated, “Corporate Qualifications

Framework” is presented whereby industry can quantify and manage

human capital for purposes of performance management as well as

credit accumulation in formal programs.

In the process, the limitations within human capital management

structures, as well as the limitations in appreciating the linkages

between industry experience, workplace learning and past learning

experiences, result in people not being recognised appropriately, in

performing their job roles.

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The researcher applied grounded theory principles outlined in the

preceding chapter. The purpose of this Chapter is to present the

discoveries of the researcher’s personal experience, the literature

review and the research questionnaire.

According to SAQA (2011) RPL suggests the measurement of actual

human capital using past performance, informal and non-formal

learning. In quantifying the required human capital for an

organisation and measuring the actual human capital against it,

training needs of employers and employees (skills GAPS) can be

identified. Sources and thinking around credit accumulation, credit

transfer and articulation could be utilised in defining the “required”

human capital as related to the dimensions of a Corporate

Qualifications Framework (CQF). The potential gap between formal,

informal and non-formal training is also highlighted within a

“Corporate Qualifications Framework”.

The implications of an Organising Framework on Occupations (OFO)

on human capital management will also be considered as part of this

research report.

4.2 OVERVIEW OF RESEARCH REPORT

According to Colorado State University (2010) the research report on

findings of the field research should function as a narrative. The

positioning of the research and the method of presentation will have

an influence on the interpretation by the readers. Accordingly,

Colorado State University proposes that qualitative researchers

include the following questions when writing their findings:

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How much information needs to be included in the text about

theories that may have guided the research, disciplinary biases

and personal hunches

How much background information is needed to interpret findings

How to present the findings of the report accurately and fairly in

a reasonable length

Rudner and Schafer (1999) and Longman (2010) discuss sections

that are required within a research report. The research findings of

this study will therefore be arranged along the following aspects:

A concise title that describes the findings clearly. The intention is

to avoid jargon and to support findings with an aim to clarify the

objectives

Description of method. This report is compiled by using actual

data from companies that attended training on the

implementation of a CQF. Their ability to implement a CQF is

analysed both qualitatively and quantitatively

Results are discussed in the form of a report that informs the

research objectives.

Apart from the literature review and the acknowledgment of the

researcher’s experience in human capital management, the

participating companies played an important role in informing

current practices in human capital management. The companies

consisted of organisations that recruited, briefed and dispatched

individual representatives to be trained as Skills Development

Facilitators (SDFs) on the implementation of a CQF. The candidates

completed portfolios of evidence in which they had to demonstrate

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the analysis of a strategic plan, the allocation of business activities

to tasks and job descriptions, as well as alignment to educational

standards. In addition, candidates had to participate in a

competency measurement of staff against specific standards, to

demonstrate a skills gap, measured in terms of educational

standards.

The researcher’s professional experience is documented in Annexure

B. Concepts and categories identified as part of the research process

and linked to personal experience, are also documented in Annexure

B.

The investigation within the participating companies started with an

analysis of the job roles needed within their organisation and how

these were aligned to the existing organisational strategy and

business objectives. This was followed by an investigation into

current competencies of staff as related to specific jobs and how

such competence aligned to the proposed job roles for their

company. The following broad aspects had to be considered by the

participants:

1. How the required job roles are linked to the business objectives

2. What would management need to know about skills development

3. What would the SDF have to know about required human capital

4. How would actual human capital be recorded and measured

5. What role does career planning and development play within the

organisation.

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4.3 THE RESEARCH STAGES

Stage 1 involved documenting and analyzing a record of the

researcher’s personal experience and exploring concepts and

categories from the documented experiences (for more details see

Annexure B).

Stage 2 involved the analysis of the literature survey. Concepts and

categories developed from the literature survey can be found in

Annexure C.

Stage 3 involved the finalization and dissemination of the research

questionnaire that was completed by 169 SDFs. The SDFs

represented different industries from the service industry including

industry expert practitioners and training providers (for more details

see Annexure E).

As a result of the data gathered in stages 1 and 2, a research

questionnaire was designed in an attempt to gather more

information from participating stakeholders. The questionnaire was

then disseminated to the 169 SDFs, for completion as a portfolio, to

test the implementability of a system to manage human capital. The

research questionnaire’s intent was to gain insight into the

perceptions and experiences of organisations with regard to human

capital management and to assess the validity of developing

categories as identified during stage 1 and 2.

Stage 4 involved the interpretation and analysis of data gathered

from the researcher’s personal experience (Stage 1), the literature

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survey (Stage 2) and data gathered from the 169 participating

companies (Stage 3). During this stage the researcher became

involved in an iterative process of reflection and triangulation,

identifying relevant concepts, categories and emerging themes.

The research study sought to explore lucidity in provisos of

epistemology, ontology and methodology in current models and

frameworks to measure both required and actual human capital

within an organisation.

Chapter 4 aims to present the findings of the research and to discuss

the findings in relation to the development of an integrated

framework for human capital management. The themes that

emerged during the research process will be discussed in Chapter 5.

4.4 RESEARCH FINDINGS

For purpose of the research report the personal experience of the

researcher, the findings from the literature review and the results

from the research questionnaire are reported separately. This is

done in respect to the complexity of information resulting from the

research process. The integration of data gathered from these three

stages will be consolidated when reporting on the emerging themes

in Chapter 5.

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4.5 THE RESEARCHER’S PERSONAL EXPERIENCE

4.5.1 CONCEPTS IDENTIFIED FROM THE RESEARCHER’S

PERSONAL EXPERIENCE

The personal experience of the researcher confirmed specific

concepts related to the objectives of the study (Chapter 1):

To demonstrate how a strategic plan can be unpacked into a set

of required competencies that can be aligned to educational

standards.

To demonstrate how non-formal training can be assessed against

formal benchmarks and how non-formal programs can become

credit bearing.

To demonstrate how a benchmark system can inform a GAP

analysis of human capital.

To demonstrate how a Corporate Qualifications Framework can

be developed whereby industry can quantify and manage human

capital for purposes of performance management.

A total of 57 concepts were identified by the researcher in reflecting

upon his experience in the field of human capital management.

These concepts are captured in Table 4.1.

Nr. Concepts

DJ* 1

Limited organisations structures

DJ 2 No performance management systems

DJ 3 No meaningful job descriptions

DJ 4 No link between job role and organisation roles.

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TWR**1 Limited job descriptions

TWR 2 Performance management loosely defined.

TWR 3 Qualifications offered had limited relationship with

industry.

TWR 4 Low consultation with industry about content of

qualifications.

TWR 5 No management view on integration

TLC ****1 Client base limited ability to manage human capital

TLC 2 Training per say is not enough, people also want

have a fit for what they do.

TLC 3 My learning not integrated

TLC 4 Company learning too classroom based

TLC 5 Jobs did not address purpose.

TLC 6 Not happy in my job

GR**** 1 My colleagues lack purpose in what they do.

GR 2 Not happy in my work.

GR 3 People work only because of money objectives.

I*****1 Training of Skills Development Facilitators (SDF).

I2 SDF ‘s had very limited understanding of human

capital management.

I3 No evidence of any system to link roles of individuals

to organisational role.

I4 No link to higher purpose.

I5 Need for systems noted

I6 Training needs noted

I7 Limited productivity

I8 Limited success in training

I9 Limited capacity

RI****** 1 Training learners on various learnerships.

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RI 2 Learners not happy.

RI 3 Learners not motivated.

RI 4 Learners no purpose

RI 5 No financial assistance for learners to establish

RI 6 No integration with learning

RI 7 No real purpose to be entrepreneurial

RI 8 Focus is on getting a stipend

RI 9 Still prefer degree

RI 10 (ECDC). No job descriptions linked to organisational

roles.

RI 11 No purpose

RI 12 Jobs did not address any human aspects.

RI 13 Learning via especially unit standards, became very

technical

RI 14 Learning very task orientated as opposed to human

oriented.

RI 15 Learning not integrated for learning.

RI 16 Learner misses big picture.

OFO*******1 Limited impact for industry

OFO 2 : No real system for companies

OFO 3 Needs further detail

OFO 4 Only macro plan

OFO 5 Very technical in orientation

OFO 6 Quiet on human front

G********1 Limited career guidance

G2 Matric standard on the decline

G3 Learners lack purpose

G4 Low reading speed

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G5 Low comprehension

G6 Inability to integrate

G7 Learner lack discipline

G8 Low attention span

*DJ – Department of Justice

**TWR – Technikon Witwatersrand

***TLC – The Learning Corporation

****GR – Gold Rose Investments

*****I- Infomage

******RI- Rims

*******OFO – Organising Framework for Occupations

********G – General

Table 4.1: Personal Experience Concepts

A detailed description of responses related to the identified concepts

are captured in Annexure B.

4.5.2 CATEGORIES IDENTIFIED FROM CONCEPTS RELATED TO

THE RESEARCHER’S PERSONAL EXPERIENCE

The researcher has clustered the 57 concepts into 6 categories as

indicated in Table 4.2.

Nr. Category

Category 1: Ill-defined human capital context.

Category 2: Lack of detail regarding job roles and

organisational roles.

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Category 3: No integrated framework of workplace learning

and formal learning.

Category 4: Limited connection with higher purpose.

Category 5: Organising Framework for Occupations (OFO)

needs further detail.

Category 6: Education needs new approach.

Table 4.2 Categories Developed from Personal Experience

The researcher classified his personal experience into different

phases, as related to time, employment and consulting. In view

thereof, the 57 concepts were clustered along these parameters, into

the above 6 categories (For more details see Annexure B).

Category 1, 2 and 3 informs research objective 1 and underlines the

problems of strategic planning and its limited application in skills

planning. The lack of clear job descriptions and a lack of an

integrated human capital framework has also been indicated as

limiting factors in aligning strategic planning with human capital

management within organisations.

Category 4 indicates the need to develop an increased contextual

awareness of higher purpose. This informs one of the research

objectives related to “how” Corporate Qualifications Frameworks” are

to be developed. The concept implies that caution should be

exercised not to develop frameworks without considering the

importance of contextual awareness.

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Category 5 suggests the need for refinement of an Organising

Framework for Occupations (OFO), thus relating to the objective

pertaining to performance management.

Lastly, Category 6 indicates the need for education reform. This

category informs all 4 of the research objectives.

4.5.3 CONCLUSION

The aim of the research is to develop and establish a framework for

the assessment of non-formal training and the quantification of

human capital. In view of the above it seems that the assessment of

non-formal training is ad-hoc, is not aligned across sectors and

industries, is not appropriately defined, does not appropriately take

into account contextual factors and does not allow for an inclusive

and transparent engagement of relevant stakeholders. The end

result does therefore not allow for the quantification of human

capital and therefore limits the management thereof.

4.6 THE LITERATURE SURVEY

The literature review provided important insight regarding the aim

and objectives of the study (Chapter 1). Of specific interest is

aspects related to the following objective:

To demonstrate how non-formal training can be assessed against

formal benchmarks and how non-formal programs can become

credit bearing.

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In the following sections the researcher will provide details regarding

the concepts and categories identified during the literature review.

4.6.1 CONCEPTS THAT DEVELOPED FROM THE LITERATURE

SURVEY

The literature survey confirmed 128 concepts as captured in Table

4.3 (for more detail regarding information gathered during the

literature review see Annexure C).

Nr. Concepts

L1 Unlimited Human needs

L2 Need for self actualization

L3 Higher purpose

L4 Absence of clarity

L5 Soul Guidance

L6 Meta Physical approach

L7 Human motivators

L8 Role of money versus other motivators

L9 Evolution

L10 Norms, measures

L11 Acknowledgement of learning

L12 Social status

L13 Education seen as element in evolution

L14 Evolving fractal

L15 Ontology

L16 Education plays role in need satisfaction

L17 Accreditation implies quality

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L18 Accreditation implies benchmarks

L19 Reciprocity implies international recognition

L20 Mobility

L21 Concerns of globalization

L22 Thought evolution

L23 Metastic thinking

L24 Protocols, frameworks

L25 Opportunity to massif education and learning

L26 Designations, CPD

L27 Thought evolution

L28 Future view, vision

L29 Basis for business

L30 Plan according to desired outcome

L31 Act in accordance with plan

L32 Measure implementation of plan

L33 Identify GAPs

L34 Act on GAPs

L35 Take corrective action

L36 Integration

L37 Personal planning

L38 Not equivalent

L39 Limited understanding

L40 Competency requires know and do

L41 Education requires knowing

L42 Workplace education

L43 Integration needed

L44 Very limited application

L45 No alignment system

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L46 World trend

L47 Integration need

L48 Productivity

L49 Motivation

L50 No formal system

L51 Resistance from formal education

L52 Various systems for measuring performance

L53 Limited system to equate performance to formal learning

L54 Need system to benchmark

L55 Skills equals income

L56 Income leads to development and motivation

L57 Motivation inspires performance

L58 Certification confirms skills and performance

L59 Reciprocity

L60 Mobility

L61 Strategic Framework

L62 Role of workplace in learning

L63 Workplace accredited learning

L64 Workplace is place of learning

L65 Recognition

L66 Motivation

L67 Evolution

L68 Purpose

L69 Credit bearing programs

L70 Career advancement

L71 Qualifications

L72 Offered at the workplace

L73 Formal qualifications

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L74 Industry need

L75 Corporate level need

L76 Required human capital

L77 Accumulate credits

L78 Various frameworks

L79 Integration

L80 Worldwide recognition

L81 Reciprocity

L82 Competitiveness

L83 RPL

L84 OFO

L85 Freedom Charter

L86 Awareness about education role

L87 Soul Purpose

L88 Poverty

L89 Productivity

L90 Quality

L91 Curriculum align with human needs

L92 Government role

L93 Private providers

L94 Online learning role

L95 Heuretic Thinking

L96 Link skills need to strategic planning

L97 Profitability

L98 Productivity

L99 Workplace action plans

L100 Economic dissatisfaction

L101 Education components

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L102 Credit accumulation

L103 Improve productivity

L104 Selection

L105 Skills

L106 Assessment / Norms

L107 Measurement

L109 Standards of skills

L110 Performance

L111 Education level

L112 Designation

L113 Integration

L114 Link education and in-formal learning

L115 Objectives

L116 Recognition

L117 Rewards

L118 Empirical Link

L119 Competency

L120 Evolution of knowledge

L121 Business planning

L122 Required human capital

L123 Actual human capital

L124 Skills GAP

L125 Business objectives

L126 Market needs

L127 New systems

L128 Need for systems

Table 4.3 Literature Survey Concepts

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A detailed description of responses related to the identified concepts

are captured Annexure C.

Nr. Category

Category 1 Trend to use planning a basis for action.

Category 2 Lack of detail regarding job roles and organisational roles.

Category 3 No integrated framework of workplace learning and formal

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Table 4.4 Categories developed from Literature Survey

The researcher clustered the literature review data into specific

domains in an attempt to identify emerging categories. The domains

included the following:

The importance of contextual awareness

The role of education

The relevance of Accreditation

The role of Reciprocity

The importance of strategic thinking

The role of competence

The role of benchmarking

The importance of performance management

The relevance of certification

The role of vocational accreditation

The impact of credit accumulation

The appreciation of political objectives

In view of the above 128 concepts, 6 categories were identified (for

more details see Annexure C).

learning.

Category 4 Limited contextual awareness and understanding of

purpose.

Category 5 Certification has a psychological effect.

Category 6 Evolving construct needed for an alternative education

system.

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Category 1 informs research objective 1 and underlines the role of

executive management to engage strategically in defining required

competence and aligning educational standards with business

objectives. In line with the above, category 2, referring to the lack of

clearly defined job roles, underlines the relevance of a Corporate

Qualifications Framework in quantifying and managing human capital

for purposes of performance management. Similarly, category 3,

referring to limitations on integrated frameworks for workplace

learning, confirms the relevance of a Corporate Qualifications

Framework.

Categories 4 and 5 seem not to relate directly to any of the

predefined objectives of the research. However, taking into account

the aim of the study, as referring amongst other, to the

quantification of human capital, one needs to consider the potential

impact of contextual awareness, purpose and psychological effect on

employees if such quantification of human capital does not

materialize.

Category 6 refers to the relevance of alternative education systems,

which forms one of the cornerstones of the aim of the study in

developing and establishing a framework for the assessment of non-

formal training.

4.6.3 CONCLUSION

The aim of the research is to develop and establish a framework for

the assessment of non-formal training and the quantification of

human capital.

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In view of the above it seems that there may be systemic limitations

within the human capital development context. Upon further

investigation one needs to unpack such interpretation by questioning

assumptions related to strategic planning, conceptual understanding

of education and training, and how these aspects may relate to

human capital management. The appreciation of social and

psychological dynamics will also need to be clarified in more detail

when discussing the emerging themes in Chapter 5.

4.7 THE RESEARCH QUESTIONNAIRE

The research questionnaire evolved as a result from concepts and

categories identified as part of stages 1 and 2 of the research. The

questionnaire consisted of 12 questions and was completed by 169

respondents from the services sector within South Africa.

4.7.1 CONCEPTS THAT DEVELOPED FROM THE RESEARCH

QUESTIONAIRE

The Evaluation of the 169 reports confirmed 10 concepts as reflected

in Table 4.5 (for more details see Annexure D).

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Table 4.5 Research Questionnaire Concepts

4.7.2 CATEGORIES IDENTIFIED FROM THE CONCEPTS

RELATED TO THE QUESTIONNAIRE

A logical clustering of the concepts confirmed 7 categories after the

evaluation of the 169 reports as indicated in Table 4.6 (for further

detail see Annexure A and F).

Nr. Category

Nr. Concepts

RQ 1 Lack of objectives set per business function

RQ 2 Lack of Job descriptions that are developed in relation to strategic

plan and business function

RQ 3 Lack of GAP analysis that include skills that can be measured

RQ 4 Lack of skills GAP’s that can be managed in normative ways

RQ 5 Lack Human Capital that could be managed per person

RQ 6 Lack of reporting mechanisms for individual progress

RQ 7 Lack of reporting mechanisms for company progress

RQ 8 Lack of integrated systems to measure progress of employees and

employers

RQ 9 Lack of recognition of the need for integration of the metaphysical

need with business needs

RQ 10 Lack system that facilitates mobility, workplace learning,

articulation, accreditation and reciprocity

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Category 1: Integrated strategic planning

Category 2: Integrated Human Capital management system

Category 3: Productivity

Category 4 Corporate Qualifications Framework

Category 5 Integrated systems reporting per person

Category 6 Performance management

Category 7 Higher level of contextual awareness

Table 4.6 Categories developed from the research questionnaire

The research questionnaire (Annexure A) was constructed to elicit

comprehensive responses from participants in relation to the

management of human capital. The questions were semi-structured

and therefore allowed for interpretation and information sharing.

Participants clearly demonstrated very specific group think on

seminal topics such as “the need for an integrated system of human

capital management, benchmarking and credit accumulation” and

“the need for a framework to address the issues of purpose,

awareness and conceptual understanding at the workplace.”

Categories 1 and 2 inform the objectives of strategic planning in

developing required human capital and the development of a

Corporate Qualifications Framework, as stated in objectives 1 and 4.

Categories 3, 4 and 6 inform the objective of developing a Corporate

Qualifications framework to quantify and management human capital

for purposes of performance management.

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Category 5 relates to objectives 3 and 4, focusing on the importance

of benchmarking performance against clearly defined job roles.

Lastly, category 7 does not directly relate to a specific research

objective. However, it does raise the question of “how” a Corporate

Qualifications Framework could impact on employees’ performance

and either motivate or demotivate performance.

Diagram 4.1 aims to demonstrate the process of extracting concepts

from personal experience, the literature survey and the research

questionnaire, clustering such into categories and allowing for theory

to emerge from such categories.

Diagram 4.1 From Concepts to Themes

Concepts developed from Personal Experience, Literature Survey and Research

Questionnaires

Categories developed from Personal Experience, Literature Survey and

Research Questionnaires Concepts

Theory emerges from Personal Experience, Literature Survey and

Research Questionnaires

Categories

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4.7.3 CONCLUSION

Taking into account the aim of the research, the concepts and

categories, as identified from the research questionnaire, confirm the

lack of integration between strategic intent and business operations

as related to human capital management. This is reflected by the

following comments made by participants:

“ We need more training in strategic management”

“Top management does strategic management but does not

engage lower management in the process”

“Top management does not monitor implementation and does

not mentor lower management in applying strategic

principles.”

It also seems that a link could be drawn between performance

management, productivity and reporting on human capital

management. Taken into account that it has also been mentioned

that job roles are not well defined by organisations (Goosen, 2009),

one could argue that the proposed link may become problematic in

modern day organisations.

Although respondents mentioned the need for further technical

training in an attempt to advance performance management, they

failed to identify the need to develop a learning strategy,

incorporating the advancement of contextual awareness. Such

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contextual awareness could play an important role in the happiness

and subsequent motivation and productivity of employees.

The possible link between a CQF, job performance and formal

learning credits, could also assist in facilitating contextual awareness

in as much as employees maybe more inclined to learn proactively if

linkages are made to what is important and meaningful for the

individual. At the same time, the employee may also be more

inclined to higher performance if such performance could lead to

credits on formal learning programs.

4.8 CONCLUSION

The non-formal and ad-hoc nature of human capital management

within modern day organisations seems to reflect a systemic

dilemma for human capital management specialists. These may

include, amongst others, educational specialists, human resource

practitioners and functional management specialists.

Underpinning this seemingly systemic dilemma is the need for an

integrated human capital management system to facilitate the

effective utilisation of limited human resources within an emerging

socio economic environment. As indicated by the feedback from the

169 respondents, performance and subsequently productivity is

largely hampered because of limitations within the existing human

capital management system.

In addition to the ad-hoc nature of human capital management, ill-

defined job roles and limited contextual understanding indicates a

further dilemma for the economy at large. Business organisations

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that struggle with the identification of clear job roles subsequently

also struggle to align job roles with strategic intent and therefore

fails at providing contextual understanding of such job roles to

employees. At the same time, employees experience confusion in job

roles, leading in turn to loss of contextual understanding as well as

potential loss in productivity.

As human capital management seems to be inappropriately defined,

the development of systems that should utilize workplace learning as

an opportunity to award formal credits in education, are hampered.

Therefore resulting in a situation were the workplace cannot function

as a place of learning, placing additional strain on the existing formal

education sector in providing learning and education solutions.

However, the formal education system does not have the capacity to

engage workplace learning for purposes of awarding credits in formal

learning programs. The resultant social and psychological effects are

that learners in the workplace remain under-recognised for both

their performance and learning efforts.

Taking into account the 3 stages during which the research was

conducted, the involvement of 169 respondents (167 companies),

the identification of 197 concepts and the emergence of 19

categories, the researcher wishes to conclude by presenting the

following emerging themes (a more detailed description regarding

each of these will be discussed in Chapter 5):

the role of strategic management in the development of an

integrated human capital management system.

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the role of skills development as productivity driver.

the role of non-formal learning in a formal learning environment.

the role of awareness and contextual understanding.

The evaluation of the researcher’s personal experience and the

literature study suggests the development of a system that includes

a long term approach to human capital development and

management and in particular, the cultivation of a higher level of

consciousness. The evaluation of 169 responses confirmed the need

for an integrated framework that considers the need to address the

above.

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CHAPTER 5 - ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION

5.1 INTRODUCTION

Chapter 5 proposes an alternative framework for human capital

management and contextual awareness.

Due to the multitude of concepts and categories articulated in the

research report, the researcher is of the opinion that a further

narrowing of categories are required to support the research process

and validate the research findings.

The proposed framework contemplates both “required“ and “actual”

human capital as it relates to the strategic business requirements of

a company.

5.2 THEMES THAT EMERGED FROM THE STUDY

The iterative nature of the research allowed the researcher to

identify the following emerging themes from the research:

5.2.1 THEME 1: THE ROLE OF STRATEGIC MANAGEMENT IN

THE DEVELOPMENT OF AN INTEGRATED HUMAN CAPITAL

MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

In the experience of the researcher, as master practitioner on

Human Resource Management, industry has a very limited

understanding of the link between strategy and job descriptions.

182

The ability of organisations to integrate job descriptions with

performance standards and to align such with education standards is

also limited.

From the identified concepts and categories, the researcher’s

personal experience indicates that the integration of strategic drivers

within the human capital management appears to be limited.

Although strategic management takes place at top management

level, the same cannot be said for human capital management at

lower levels. The research indicates that the ability to link strategy

to skills requirements and purpose of work is limited in both

cognition and application within South African companies. Strategic

planning is seldom normative, thus making measurement a

challenge. In addition strategic planning is also often complex and

somewhat esoteric and tends to follow the latest “buzzwords” and

academic rhetoric, whilst struggling to find application at an

operational level.

The problem for effective human capital management seems to

relate amongst other, to a lack of implementation and lack of well-

defined action plans, that is also not being monitored effectively.

Strategic planning should engage all stakeholders and should

incorporate a methodology to monitor the implementation of

strategic intent. The strategic planning in human capital

management ought to identify required human capital and devise

systems to ensure the provision and maintenance of such resources.

However, limited guidance for actual industry application is

available.

183

Care has to be taken not to develop a system that operates in a

mechanistic tendency only. The role of human evolution and

contextual awareness needs to be connected to an integrated

framework and managed as part of the implementation strategy of a

CQF.

Findings from the researcher’s personal experience, literature survey

and research questionnaire, indicate that an organisational strategic

plan could be used to determine required human capital within an

organisation. Evidence of this analysis is found in the portfolios of

evidence submitted by the representing organisational candidates

(see Annexure A and E).

The human capital requirements within each of the participating

companies were analysed and unpacked into tasks and activities that

were later clustered into job descriptions. These activities, written as

Key Performance Indicators, were then aligned to specific

educational standards. The “lack of job descriptions developed from

strategic planning, effective GAP analysis and human capital

management per person” emerged as key components underpinning

theme 1.

In an attempt to contribute towards formalizing a framework for the

assessment of non-formal training, participating companies were

required to review their existing job descriptions. Once these were

reviewed, these job descriptions functioned as the benchmark

against which individual employees could be assessed. Companies

had to provide evidence that a performance measurement of staff

184

have been conducted against a specific set of standards. In doing so

companies could identify their potential skills GAP as measured in

terms of educational standards. In addition participants had to

prepare a project plan, to demonstrate their competence in

managing the closure of such skills GAPs. During this process the

lack of implementation of strategic planning became eminent.

Based on the results from the 169 respondents (see Annexure A and

E), the vision and mission statements of each of these businesses

were utilised to define a set of business objectives specific to each

participating company. These were then aligned to specific job

descriptions required to enhance the performance of each company

and ultimately related to existing education and training unit

standards. This activity highlighted the “lack of reporting

mechanisms for the company and employees”.

Companies rated the newly defined job roles in terms of both

required activity and actual activity in an attempt to define a

potential competence gap. In the event of a competence gap the

newly defined job roles served as a benchmark for performance

development, indicating the need for an integrated human capital

management system. However, this process also illuminated the

absence of “contextual awareness” in human capital.

5.2.2 THEME 2: THE ROLE OF SKILLS AS A PRODUCTIVY DRIVER

The researcher’s personal experience indicated concepts and

categories that suggest, “ Job roles are not well defined”. Given the

185

“limited connection with higher purpose”, a motivation level of

employees seems to be low.

The result of low skills levels in South Africa, lead to additional time

needed to perform tasks that other individuals in foreign countries

do in less time. The level of actual skills in industries across the

economic spectrum is in constant need of improvement (Beere,

2007). The result is a reduced output or “productivity”.

Furthermore the introduction of the OFO in South Africa suggests

that job profiles would be developed from which job descriptions and

performance management systems will emanate. However, the OFO

will need considerable expansion and much “more detail” to fulfill

this function within the South African context. Job roles would need

clear and measurable definition in order to enable employees to truly

understand the importance of the task at hand. Employees would

also need to have a reason for occupying such a job. The job would

need to provide the individual with a “purpose” in order to ensure

optimal and productive employees.

Similarly the literature survey indicated concepts and categories that

highlight the limited ability of the workplace to provide a sense of

higher purpose to the individual. In addition the limitations of a

relationship between productivity and education in history, seems

evident from the survey. However, the survey does indicate that

industry has “a trend to use planning as a basis for action”.

However, implementation and monitoring remain as limiting factors.

The result culminates in limited guidance, “limited performance

management” and low productivity. The need for an “integrated

186

system” to manage human capital suggests a system that clarifies

job roles and monitors performance against such job roles on a basis

that addresses human purpose and productivity.

From the research questionnaire the issues of “limited productivity,

low levels of awareness, lack of integration and performance

management” are highlighted.

The research aim “to develop and establish a framework for the

assessment of non-formal training and the quantification of human

capital” is partially addressed in this theme.

5.2.3 THEME 3: THE ROLE OF NON-FORMAL LEARNING IN A

FORMAL LEARNING ENVIRONMENT

In the experience of the researcher very limited application of non-

formal learning, as credits for formal learning, actually exists within

South Africa. Where such models are in fact developed, the

application is limited to in-house needs and don’t articulate to full

qualifications (Bear, 1991).

Current human capital management processes within South Africa

seem to lack both “definition and integration”, thus leading to

hampering the notion of a system that could recognise non-formal

learning in a formal context. The development of a human capital

management system that functions optimally should include “non-

formal and informal learning as credits in a formal learning context”.

In addition a “new approach for the education system” should ensure

that such learning is accredited and also articulates to further,

187

formal qualifications. Learning should also have a large degree of

mobility and reciprocity on at least a national level.

The “new education approach” should also incorporate a solution to

the “limited connection with higher purpose”. Education programs

would need to find ways to adapt curriculums to stimulate

“contextual awareness” amongst learners and employees.

The literature survey supports the introduction of an “evolving

construct of a new education system”. By implication the very

thought construct of the education system needs redesign to

incorporate the requirements of amongst others, “credit bearing

workplace learning.” The essence of such a system would require a

flexible system to document learning. “Planning would need to be

the basis for action”.

Based on the results from the 169 participants in the research

project, participants indicated that they are willing to align job

descriptions to business objectives and to educational standards.

Actual competencies were identified and action steps designed for

the GAP closure are indeed followed.

A “Corporate Qualifications Framework” can be developed whereby

industry can quantify and manage human capital as above, for

purpose of performance management, staff learning and objectives

attainment. The objective behind the development of the

“Corporative Qualification Framework” is to create a simplistic

system whereby the providers of learning; employers and employees

188

can quantify what they know and what they do. Thus, to measure

competency for work as well as qualification purposes.

The research questionnaire indicated that required human capital for

all 169 participants in the list could be determined by using the

strategic plan of the organisations. By comparing the actual human

capital to the required human capital using an educational standard

as a measurement tool, a skills GAP is identified. Business

objectives, job descriptions, performance appraisals and GAP

analysis were developed by participants on their respective

organisations to create a “CQF”. Thus, an integrated human capital

and performance management system becomes possible.

All the respondents in the research had to develop a set of required

tasks from their organisation’s proposed business plan. Companies

such as White Zulu, SA Post Office and Direct Axis developed a set of

required competencies from the tasks as related to the business

plan. Individual employees were then measured against these

competencies. However, the feedback indicated that they did not

have adequate skills to execute the jobs required to effectively

implement the proposed business plans within their organisations.

After discovering the skills GAP from each company, training was

recommended based on accredited education standards within the

formal education and training landscape within South Africa. Each

company had a management review process that included a report,

capturing information relating to the following:

Participating employees

Modules completed (including training content)

189

Service provider

Employee results.

Effectively, the introduction of a system to give formal credit to non-

formal learning, should create a more positive workplace scenario,

as well as reduced stress on the formal sector in terms of access and

capacity.

5.2.4 THEME 4: THE ROLE OF AWARNESS AND CONTEXTUAL

UNDERSTANDING

The research suggests that modern day training should aim at

providing skills to individuals on a “contextual basis”. Learners often

obtain the ability to perform tasks very well, without truly

understanding the importance or the real need for such tasks. This

results in the person performing a task without understanding the

contextual relevance of such activity and how it relates to both the

business objectives and the strategic plan. The resultant effect could

be a drop in motivation levels, which in turn may lead to limited

interest in achieving company objectives and therefore potentially,

resulting in a reduction in productivity.

The “non-contextual” dilemma as discussed above could be related

to the “limited awareness” challenge as indicated by participants.

Limited awareness suggests that, amongst other, employees lack

self-understanding of “purpose”. The net effect of “limited

awareness” or “contextual understanding” can therefore be that an

individual does not see the task as important and does not feel

appreciated and is subsequently not inspired to perform in his or her

190

job role. Where an individual could find purpose in what they do,

performing such tasks becomes a joy and is no longer seen as just a

job. The pursuit of “purpose” per says ought to be a component in

the design of all human development activity.

The “evolving education approach” could assist in developing a

system that recognises the importance of the consciousness level of

the individual in what they do. Sustainable, responsible education

and mindfulness about the job role could enhance motivation and

thus “performance”.

The literature survey further suggests that “awareness” or

“consciousness” becomes part of the learning agenda. This

awareness could facilitate the development of purpose for the

employee. With purpose comes the reason for being in a certain job

role.

The study shows that key performance areas should therefore not

just focus on the task at hand. If job descriptions are developed to

measure contextual awareness and consciousness, “alignment to

educational standards” should be considered. The issue of

“awareness” can be addressed to support the critical cross-field

outcomes as well as underpin any potential fundamental unit

standards. For this reason it becomes important to develop a set of

guidelines in developing educationally aligned job descriptions.

One major challenge confronting business is how to harness human

potential for the benefit of long-term wealth for all stakeholders. It

has been said, if employees were to follow the precise letter of job

191

descriptions and organisational protocol, things would soon grind to

a halt (Maggelan Research: 2010). In other words, getting the “job”

done involves a lot more than just the tasks associated with the job

description. A lot of organisational success depends on “how” rather

than “what needs to be done”. Human relations and the feeling of

citizenship, or belonging, is very important (Maggelan Research:

2010).

Maggelan Research (2010) states that, a lot of energy goes into

treating underperforming employees, while neglecting the health of

the organization as a whole. Companies seem to do a good job of

treating an underperforming individual and then send him or her

back to a “sick workplace”, a place with low morale, negative

supervision and poor safety. Instead of treating just the “trees,”

integrated organizational wellness looks at treating the” entire

forest.”

The introduction of a “CQF” could in itself contribute to

organisational wellness and promote organisational citizenship in the

sense that an employee can measure and plan their own

“educational development pathway”. This ought to have a positive

effect on motivation and subsequently “performance” and

organisational deliverables.

Writing Help Central (2010) defines corporate objectives as

statements of intent that provide the basic direction for the activities

of an organization in pursuit of its mission. To think of objectives as

statements of intent and goals as quantifiable targets, enables

192

management to understand the overall business “purpose” and

required tasks more clearly.

Only if employees understand a vision, can they share in it and

support it. Once the individual understands and supports the

organisational vision, he or she can incorporate the vision to become

his or her “own” - in other words, the objectives of the organisation

become the objectives of the individual. This could enable the

organisation and employee to function in synergy, thus adding to

“contextual awareness”.

5.3 THE CURRENT SITUATION IN SOUTH AFRICA

South Africa is faced with an enormous challenge with bridging the

gap between the lack of skills among lower-level workers and the

need to be highly productive, particularly at the lower levels of

employment. Keeping this situation in mind it is clear that there is a

strong relationship between education, development and training

and that elements of all three are involved whenever an action is

undertaken to improve an employee's performance in the enterprise.

The distinction between the three rests upon whether the

undertaking is for general betterment, for improvement in a specific

job or for better performance in the enterprise in future.

Assessing training needs in South Africa are more complex than

simply identifying the required task to fulfill and objective. Due to

the past imbalances and inherent lack of fundamental education, a

large part of the population suffers from a limiting self-belief. This

self-belief imprisons their thinking to a level of low performance and

193

subsequently, limited earning potential. The result is that education

and training has to address more than just skills transfer, but also

has to address the issues of physiological nature.

5.4 CONCLUSION

In this study, it is evidenced that job roles, performance

management and training initiatives were often developed and

conducted without considering the “interrelationship” amongst each

other. Human capital management systems also seem to operate on

a fragmented basis within South African companies and

“performance management” and “skills needs” are often seen as

different from one another.

During the research, concepts and categories were identified from

data gathered from personal experience, a literature survey and a

research questionnaire. These concepts and categories seem to

overlap to some extent. In particular “contextual awareness” and

“higher consciousness” seem to emerge as an overarching theme,

resulting from concepts and categories underpinning:

the role of strategic management in the development of an

integrated human capital management system

the role of skills development as productivity driver

the role of non-formal learning in a formal learning environment.

194

At the same time the outcome of this study suggest that

organisations consider the design and implementation of an

integrated human capital management framework whereby all

learning, training and development will be “quantified” in terms of

formal learning requirements and standards.

In conclusion the following framework is proposed by the researcher

to inform a review of human capital management practices with

South African organisations:

Concepts

Concepts

Theme: 1 The role of

strategic managmentin

the development of an

integrated human capital

management system

Theme: 2: The

role of skills

development as

productivity

driver

Theme: 3: The role

of non-formal

learning in a formal

learning environment

Diagram 5.1: Current State

Concepts

Categories

Categories

Categories

Theme: 4: The role

of awareness and

contextual

understanding

195

The proposed framework for human capital management (diagram

5.2) illustrates the importance of the coexistence of ideas and

activities as related to strategic planning, productivity and non-

formal learning, within the modern day workplace. This framework is

proposed with specific reference to those organisations operating

within an emerging economy where the sense of self and the

contribution of the individual are often framed within a social

context.

Diagram 5.2 Future State

Theme:1

Theme:2

Theme:3

Theme:4

196

CHAPTER 6: CONCLUSION

6.1 INTRODUCTION

Productivity is one of the most important concerns of the South

African economy. Therefore government should ensure that private

enterprises are equipped with the required skills as well as the

necessary fiscal to drive economic transformation.

The largest trade union federation in South Africa, COSATU, and

government are in a tripartite relationship with the SACP. The

current Minister of Higher Education and Training and the newly

appointed officials into the ministry of education are also office

bearers or long-standing members of the SACP and the ANC.

Educational policy is therefore driven within this thought construct.

(Meyer, 2012).

The transformation needed in the education sector should address

the development of cognitive functionality, prior to engaging in the

training of job related skills. Critical elements in learning, such as

computer skills, functional numeracy and literacy, are a basic pre-

requisite for development, and a fundamental requirement for

workplace learning.

This chapter considers the conclusive findings of the research and

debates the merit of the research. During the research study, the

following aspects were addressed:

197

1. The role of an organizational strategic plan in determining the

required human capital for an organisation.

2. The relevance of industry experience, competence and non-formal

training as compared to formal education and training standards.

3. The potential use of non-formal learning as credits in formal

learning programs.

4. The relevance of an integrated human capital management

framework and potential Corporate Qualifications Framework for

South African organisations.

5. The development of contextual awareness in understanding

learner development.

6. The role of skills and productivity in human capital management.

7. The identification of skills GAPs and the management thereof to

the benefit of the organization.

6.2 REVIEW OF CHAPTER OBJECTIVES

During the research it transpired that strategic planning is not

functioning optimally. The research objective to “demonstrate how a

strategic plan can be unpacked into a set of required competencies

that can be aligned to educational standards” appears to have been

satisfied from the feedback of the research questionnaires. Similarly,

the personal experience of the researcher supports the notion. From

the development of concepts and categories, “the role of strategic

management in the development of an integrated human capital

management system” emerged as an important theme. This theme

suggests that the above objective of the research has been

addressed adequately.

198

However, it needs to be mentioned that companies that participated

in the research were all selected from the Service Sector Education

and Training Authority domain. The role of strategic planning in the

development of an integrated human capital management system

has therefore not been explored beyond the realm of the services

sector in South Africa.

The objective “to demonstrate how non-formal training can be

assessed against formal benchmarks and how non-formal programs

can become credit bearing” found merit in the emerging theme “the

role of non-formal learning in a formal learning environment”.

Findings from the literature survey suggest evolving practice in other

parts of the world, towards the development of systems that may

address this.

However, in the development of the suggested framework this

theme would require a great deal of planning and systems design.

The introduction of a system whereby non-formal training, such as

work based learning, becomes credit bearing in formal programs

could however, be potentially administration intense. The research

did not consider the impact of the additional administration burden

as it falls outside the scope of the study. Included in this

administration burden is the need for quality assurance, articulation,

mobility and record keeping. All these elements would have a

potential cost implication that may require additional research.

The objective “to demonstrate how a benchmark system can be used

for a GAP analysis in human capital management” is addressed in

“the role of strategic management in the development of an

199

integrated human capital management system”. The use of an

integrated framework suggests the development of benchmarks by

using known educational standards.

However, the potential risks should also be mentioned – job roles

deduced from strategic plans may follow a highly “task orientated”

approach, whilst education standards could suggest elements that

may be esoteric and at times academic.

The objective “to demonstrate how a Corporate Qualifications

Framework can be developed whereby industry can quantify and

manage human capital for purposes of performance management” is

addressed in both themes 2 and 3.

However, an integrated human capital management system that will

be developed, based on required competencies alone, is at risk of

being “too normative”, if the findings of theme 4, “the role of

awareness and contextual understanding” is not addressed in a

meaningful way. A mindful balance between task and awareness

may very well address this problem.

“The role of skills development as productivity driver” emerged as a

theme, but was not considered as an initial objective of the study.

However, whether an increase in skills implies increase productivity

needs to be explored in more detail.

6.3 PROPOSED FURTHER RESEARCH

200

The research highlighted the need for further investigation into the

following:

i. The practical application of a CQF in industry with specific

reference to developing automated systems and software.

ii. Determining Return on Investment (ROI) on the investment

of workplace education versus productivity.

iii. Effectiveness of workplace learning versus formal learning.

iv. The real recognition of South African qualifications in the

global arena, reciprocity and international employment

prospects.

v. The importance of contextual awareness and how to improve

actual consciousness of employees in an attempt to address

the development of purpose.

vi. The real impact of a lack of contextual awareness on the

poverty mindset.

vii. Possible cost implications of using non-formal learning as

formal learning credits.

201

6.4 LIMITATIONS OF THE STUDY

The following limitations can be noted:

i. The exclusion of learner and employee experiences from the

research study.

ii. The responses solicited during the research questionnaires are

the opinions of the research participant’s perspectives and

experiences.

iii. The real impact of the Organising Framework of Occupations

and the QCTO on the development of job descriptions.

iv. The real impact of the Organising Framework of Occupations

and the QCTO on the development of qualifications for

occupationally directed education and training providers.

v. Limited information of the real impact of lack of awareness on

the world of work, productivity, society and human

development.

6.5 SUMMARY

The main focus of the transformation of education is to be

responsive to the needs of students of all ages and the intellectual

challenges of the environment. This assumes, amongst other, a

commitment to democracy, social justice and the economic and

social development of the system at large. It demands increasing

access and equity in higher education particularly in relation to the

participation rate of previously disadvantaged learners as well as

mature learners.

202

There is little meaning in knowing how to perform a task or job if

such a job has no purpose for the individual involved. Only through

the development of one’s higher self, does one address the issue of

purpose. Without finding purpose, all education and skill, remain

useless. The potential use for business is substantial, but requires a

transformation in “thinking” of the stakeholders.

Employers would need to become more aware of potential

educational standards that they could use in the design of job

descriptions. Employers should also be more active in

communicating workplace demands and requirements to training

providers. This would require a closer relationship between industry

and the providers of learning. The responsibility of the provider

community would be to become more agile, more responsive and

more open to faster changes, to accommodate the needs of industry.

In chapter one reference is made to the assumption that the

“norms“ used are indeed applicable. Thus, the quantification of

learning takes place in relation to qualifications that may not

necessarily represent true stakeholder or industry requirements. The

introduction of the Organising Framework for Occupations aims to

address this issue and may lead to the development of more realistic

norms in the future.

In chapter 6, the integrated use of a CQF is addressed in the context

of work place learning and work place credit. The integrated

conclusion suggests a redesign of the educational model that should

203

be more flexible, more adaptable and more effective, serving the

needs of society at large.

The role of innovation and advancement of nations will have a

perpetual demand on educational institutions in providing the

required competencies for global industry needs. Education and the

capacity of employees will become the international measurement of

countries per capita GDP (Gross Domestic Production). In view

thereof the role of the workplace provision will become increasingly

important.

204

Diagram 6.1 Evolution of the Research Project

Chapter 1: Research Question, aims and objectives

Lack of integrated

Human Captital

Management

Chapter 2: Literature Survey - evolution of thought

Chapter 3: Research

Methodology

Grounded

Theory

Chapter 4:

Research Findings

Chapter 5:Emerg

ing Themes

Recommendations

Chapter 6: Objectives reviewed,

Limitations discussed

205

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