The Learning Process

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The Learning Process By Mr. Manuel M. Avenido, Jr.

DPE/CPE 101Cebu Technological University

(Foundation of Education)

At the end of the lecture, learners are expected to:

1. understand the nature of learning;2. know the types of learning;3. familiarize the theories of learning; and 4. recognize the factors affecting the “transf

er of learning.”

Teaching as a Complex Process

mentortutorfacilitator

moderator

guidance counselor

confidante

friend

mediator

adviser

curriculum maker

consultant leader

community worker

evaluator

The learner as a social individual is a...

unique individual

has physical, biological, psychological, social, and spiritual needs

follows a natural pattern of

development tasks

has potentialities to be explored

has an impressionistic mind

is bombarded by sense stimuli and uncensored influences

is a person in context (family, community, and

nation)

is a human being with a soul

Nature of Learning

Nature of Learning

1. Learning is a change or modification in the behavior or capability of growth.

Nature of Learning

2. Learning process refers to the series of learning that takes place.

Nature of Learning

3. The learner has a tremendous variety of talents, capacities, and potentialities.

Nature of Learning

4. Individuals differ greatly in the amount and equality of a talent or capacity they possess.

Nature of Learning

5. Learning process depends to a large degree on the individuals' capacities, motivation and previous learning and on the nature of the stimulus situation.

Nature of Learning6. In the learning process, the individual brings to

any stimulus' situation sets, and stock of learned responses from previous experiences in the form of knowledge, concepts and generalization skills, abilities, and ways of behavior.

Nature of Learning

7. A human individual learns and behaves as he or she attempts new responses that prove to have satisfaction.

Law of Effect says that as the child finds learning satisfying, then learning tends to be repeated, and if

the child finds learning annoying, learning tends to be ignored.

Nature of Learning

8. Practice is necessary to inquire a specific skill.

Law of Exercise says that as the child strengthens his or her learning, there must be enough exercise to be given to create learning

mastery. Practice means perfect.

Nature of Learning

9. Practice with insight and understanding of the behavior is sought to be desirable in learning a fixed responses or set of responses.

Learning by doing.

Nature of Learning

10. To assure learned responses will be readily available for use again, if these should be repeated thereafter.

Law of Recency says that the most recent the lesson is repeated, the better it is to have retention.

Law of Fading says that if learnning is not repeated, then, there is a tendency for such to fade-off.

Nature of Learning

11. Learning has an experiential base.

Experience is the basis in most learning whether adaptation, assimilation, and

organization.

Nature of Learning

12. The five essential bases for learning in stimulus situation are motives, perception and cognition, goal setting, response and reinforcement.

The five essential bases for learning in stimulus situation1. Motives are drives or intentions which serve as the basic

foundations on why a child learns.

2. Perception (acuity) and Cognition (understanding) are intellectual skills of the child more especially used in the development of higher order thinking skills.

3. Goal Setting is the aim or target that serves as basis in the whole process of learning.

4. Response (reaction to existing stimuli) and Reinforcement (keystone) area attitudinal skills of the child in responding to stimuli and to underpin learning outcomes.

Nature of Learning

13. The greater the stock of generalized concepts and principles a person has learned, the more competent he can transfer learning.

General Principles of Learning

General Principles of Learning1. An individual learns more readily when

motivated.= True

2. Excessive motivation is less effective than moderate motivation.= True

3. Learning under control or reward is NOT preferable to under punishment.= False

General Principles of Learning4. Learning under intrinsic motivation is

preferable to under extrinsic.= True

5. Tolerance of failure is best taught through backlog of sucess.= True

6. Learner doesn't need practice in goal setting.= False


7. Personal history may hamper or enhance learning from a given task.= True

8. Passive participation is preferable to active participation.= False

9. Meaningful materials are readily learned than nonsense materials.= True


10. No substitute for repetitivve practice over learning of a skill.= True

11. Information about performance, mistakes, success do not assist the learner.= False

12. Transfer occurs when relationship is discovered.= True

General Principles of Learning13. Distributed recalls are advantageous in

fixing materials.14. Effort is put forth when tasks are

challenging.15. Learners engage in an activity they

select and plan.16. Learners grouped by ability still vary

according to other criteria.17. Learners think when

encountered by obstacles and challenges.

General Principles of Learning18. Concepts should be presented in varied

and specified situation.19. Pupils learn a great deal from each other.20. Problems of "isolates" appear in all school.21. No school subject is strikingly superior to

any other subject.22. Learners remember new subjects that

conform to their attitudes.23. Learning is aided by

formulation and asking question.

Types of Learning

Learning is a change in behavior or in potential behavior that occurs as a result of experience.

Three Major Types of Learning:

1) Learning through association – Classical Conditioning

2) Learning through consequences – Operant Conditioning

3) Learning through observation – Modeling/Observational Learning

Classical Conditioning• If a neutral stimulus

(a stimulus that at first elicits no response) is paired with a stimulus that already evokes a reflex response, then eventually the new stimulus will by itself evoke a similar response.

Russian physiologist Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)

Operant Conditioning• The organism

operates on its environment in some way; the behavior in which it engages are instrumental to achieving some outcome.

B.F. Skinner(1904-1990)

Operant Conditioning• LAW of EFFECT

If a response is followed by a pleasant or satisfying consequence, that response will be strengthened. If a response is followed by an unpleasant or negative state of affairs, it will be weakened.

B.F. Skinner(1904-1990)

Differences Between Operant and Classical Conditioning1) In classical conditioning, the conditional

behavior (CR) is triggered by the particular stimulus (CS) and is therefore called an elicited behavior. Operant behavior is an emitted behavior in the sense that it occurs in a situation containing many stimuli and seems to be initiated by the organism. In a sense the subject chooses when and how to respond.

2) In classical conditioning, behavior (CR) is affected by something that occurs before the behavior (the CS-UCS pairing). In contrast, the operant response is affected by what happens after the behavior – that is by its consequences.

Operant Conditioning• Positive Reinforcement - any stimulus or event th

at increases the likelihood of the occurrence of a behavior that it follows.

• Shaping - the method of successive approximations. Shaping reinforces the behaviors as they get closer and closer to the desired behavior.

• Negative Reinforcement - anything that increases a behavior that results in the reinforcers removal.

• Punishment - any consequence that decreases the future occurrence of a behavior that produces it.

Operant Conditioning

When You Remove a Positive Stimulus 1. Extinction

If the stimulus is a reinforcer for the behavior (e.g., parent ignores child/withdraws attention when child acts up to get attention)

2. Response CostIf the stimulus is not a reinforcer for the behavior (e.g., parent takes away child's TV privileges when child acts up to get attention)

Modeling/Observational Learning

• Observational learning is learning that occurs through observing the behavior of others. This form of learning does not need reinforcement to occur, but instead, requires a model. A social model can be a parent, sibling, friend, or teacher, but—particularly in childhood—a model is someone of authority or higher status.

Albert Bandura (December 4, 1925)

Bandura's Social Cognitive Learning Theory 1. Attention: Observers cannot learn unless they pay

attention to what's happening around them. This process is influenced by characteristics of the model, such as how much one likes or identifies with the model, and by characteristics of the observer, such as the observer's expectations or level of emotional arousal.

2. Retention/Memory: Observers must not only recognize the observed behavior but also remember it at some later time. This process depends on the observer's ability to code or structure the information in an easily remembered form or to mentally or physically rehearse the model's actions.

Bandura's Social Cognitive Learning Theory 3. Initiation/Motor: Observers must be physically an

d/intellectually capable of producing the act. In many cases the observer possesses the necessary responses. But sometimes, reproducing the model's actions may involve skills the observer has not yet acquired. It is one thing to carefully watch a circus juggler, but it is quite another to go home and repeat those acts.

4. Motivation: Coaches also give pep talks, recognizing the importance of motivational processes to learning.

Other Theories of Learning

Trial and Error/ Theory of Connectionism

• Trial and Error is a method of learning in which various response are tentatively tried and some discarded until a solution is attained.

E.L.Thorndike(1874-1949)

Features of Trial and Error

1. Learning by trial and error is gradual process.2. For learning to occur, the learner must be definitely

motivated.3. The learner makes random and variable response.4. Some responses do lead to the goal (annoying response)5. Some responses lead to the goal. (satisfying responses)6. With the increase in number of trials the annoying

responses will tend to be eliminated and the satisfying responses will be strengthened and repeated.

7. The time taken to perform the task (to repeat the satisfying response) decreases with successive trials.

Features of Trial and Error

1. Learning by trial and error is gradual process.2. For learning to occur, the learner must be definitely

motivated.3. The learner makes random and variable response.4. Some responses do lead to the goal (annoying

response)5. Some responses lead to the goal. (satisfying

responses)6. With the increase in number of trials the annoying

responses will tend to be eliminated and the satisfying responses will be strengthened and repeated.

7. The time taken to perform the task (to repeat the satisfying response) decreases with successive trials.

Thorndike's Law of Learning:

i) Law of Readiness : The law states "When any conduction unit is ready to conduct, for it do so is satisfying. When a conduction unit is not ready to conduct. for it to conduct is annoying. When any conduction is ready to conduct, for it not to do so is annoying."

ii) Law of Effect: The law states "When a modifiable connection between a stimulus and response is made and is accompanied or followed by a satisfying state of affairs the strength of connection is increased. When a connection between stimulus and response is made and accompanied or followed by an annoying state of affairs , it strength decreases.

iii) Law of Execise: The law states "Any response to a situation will, other things being equal, be more strongly connected with the situation in proportion to the number of times it has been connected with that situation and to the average vigour and duration of the connection."

Thorndike's Law of Learning:

The law has two sub parts: a) Law of Use and b) Law of Disuse

a) Law of Use states that "When a modifiable connection is made between a situation and response that connection strength is increased if it is practised."

b) Law of Disuse states that "When a modifiable connection is not made between a situation and response, during a length of time, that connection's strength is decreased." This means, any act that is not practised for sometime gradually decays.

Association or Stimulus-Response Theory

The theory of stimulus and response - otherwise known as cause and effect, can be regarded as the foundation of behaviour. It is the foundations stone on which we build our behaviour model.

In behavioural terms a stimulus is defined as the influence which brings about or evokes an identifiable response. A response is that human behaviour which is caused or evoked by an identifiable stimulus.


The theory of stimulus and response - otherwise known as cause and effect, can be regarded as the foundation of behaviour. It is the foundations stone on which we build our behaviour model.

In behavioural terms a stimulus is defined as the influence which brings about or evokes an identifiable response. A response is that human behaviour which is caused or evoked by an identifiable stimulus.


When considering an S-R association one canassume that the nature and strength of theresponse and hence the association between thestimulus and response will depend upon suchthings as: The perceived strength of the stimulus The nature of the stimulus Frequency of application of stimulus The perceived value and relevance of the

stimulus The person who the stimulus is applied.

Cognitive Field Theories of Learning/ Gestalt

• Cognitive Development Theory emphasizes, "development precedes learning." He assumes that the child is an active organism and that development depends in large part the child manipulation of active interaction with the environment. Jean Piaget


• Psychological stages of development states that people pass through 8 psychosocial stages in their lifetimes and as they grow, they face a series of psychosocial crises that shape personality; each crisis focuses on a particular aspect of personality and involves the person's relationships with others. Erik Erikson


• Psycho-analytic and psychosexual. The psychosexual theory focuses on the effects of early childhood experience to adult's behavior.

Sigmund Freud


• Hypothetico-deduction theory

Clark Hull


• Theory on Motivation

Kurt Lewin


• Cumulative Learning Theory

Robert Gagne


• Cognitive Map

Edward Tolman


• Insight Theory

Wolfgang Kohler

Factors Affecting Transfer of Learning

Trial and Error/ Theory of Connectionism

• Trial and Error is a method of learning in which various response are tentatively tried and some discarded until a solution is attained.

E.L.Thorndike(1874-1949)