Rome and Paul in British Imperial Ideology

NEW APOSTLES: THE LASTING EFFECTS OF PAUL’S RECEPTION AMONG BRITISH MISSIONARIES  The$ideological$functions$of$Rome$and$Paul$within$British$imperial$thought$and$British$imperial$missionary$writings,$with$a$critique$of$anti;imperial$NT$criticism.$

 November(22,(2014(  Christina(Harker(

Rome & British Imperial Thought

The$Roman$Empire$as$Model$to$the$British$Empire$

The$Narrative$of$Cultural$and$Imperial$Transfer$

Colonization$of$Ireland$in$the$Roman$Style$

New$Barbarians:$Ireland$

Barbarism$and$Paternalism$in$the$Age$of$Empire$

Racial$Hierarchies$of$Emprie$

3 |

Lessons from Rome “The%man%who%studies%the$Roman$frontier$system,%studies%not%only%a%great%work%but%one%which%has$given$us$all$modern$Western$Europe.%“%

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Source: en.numista.com

Francis%Haverfield%(1860A1919) was%a%British%archaeologist%who%sought%direct%links%between%the%Roman%and%British%Empires,%often%using%archaeological%study%to%connect%his%contemporary%Britain%to%the%ancient%Romans.%%In%the%half%penny%below,%note%the%laureate%presentation%of%Victoria,%the%Latin%legend,%and%Britannia%presented%in%a%similar%way%to%how%Rome%was%on%ancient%Roman%coin%reverses%(see%next%slide).%

4 |

The Roman Empire as Model to the British Empire

 William$Fynes$Moryson’s$An%Itinerary%(1617):$

 The$wise$Romans$enlarged$their$conquests,$so$did$they$spread$their$language$with$their$laws,$and$the$divine$service$all$in$the$Latin$tongue,$and$by$their$rewards$and$preferments$invited$men$to$speak$it$

 Francis$Haverfield,$a$Roman$archaeologist:*$

 The$greatest$work$of$the$imperial$age$must$be$sought$in$its(imperial(administration—in$the$organization(of(its(frontier$defences$which$repulsed(the(barbarian,$and$in$the$development$of$the$provinces$within$those$defences...$In(the(lands(that([Rome](had(sheltered,(Roman(civilisation(had(taken(firm(root.((

*Hingley, Roman Officers and English Gentlemen: The Imperial Origins of Roman Archaeology, 37

A%bust%portrait%of%Elagabalus%facing%right,%with%a%laurel%crown%and%full%name%in%the%Latin%legend.%On%the%reverse,%his%titles%surround%Rome%who%sits%with%her%shield%by%her%side,%holding%the%goddess%of%Victory%who%offers%her%a%wreath.%This%style%was%often%copied%in%the%modern%period.%

5 |

The Roman Empire as Model to the British Empire

 J.C.$Stobart,$The%Grandeur%that%was%Rome%(1912):$

 The$modern$reader,$especially$if$he$be$an(Englishman,$is$a$citizen$of$an$empire$now$extremely$self;conscious$and$somewhat$bewildered$at$its$own$magnitude.$He$cannot(help(drawing(analogies(from(Roman(history$and$seeking$in$it$‘morals’$for$his$own$guidance.$The(Roman(Empire(bears(such(an(obvious(and(unique(resemblance(to(the(British(that$the$fate$of$the$former$must$of$enormous$interest$to$the$latter.$$

*Hingley, Roman Officers and English Gentlemen: The Imperial Origins of Roman Archaeology, 37 . Medal from Yale University Art Gallery. (2001.87.27595)

Other%Modern%European%nations%and%monarchs%also%modeled%themselves%on%the%Romans.%Notice%below%Louis%XIV%in%a%Roman%style%bust%portrait,%with%a%similarly%Roman%influenced%portrayal%of%Public%Happiness%on%the%reverse.%

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Cultural Transfer: William Cowper (1731-1800)

 ‘Princess!$If$our$aged$eyes$  Weep$upon$thy$matchless$wrongs,$

 ‘Tis$because$resentment$ties$

 All$the$terrors$of$our$tongues.$

 Rome(shall(perish—write$that$word$

 In$the$blood$that$she$has$spilt;$  Perish,$hopeless$and$abhorred,$

 Deep(in(ruin(as(in(guilt.$

 ‘Rome,(for(empire(far(renowned,(

 Tramples$on$a$thousand$states;$

 Soon$her$pride$shall$kiss$the$ground—$

 Hark!$the$Gaul$is$at$her$Gates!$


 Cowper$was$an$English$poet$who$wrote$“Boadicea:$An$Ode”$in$1782:$

 When$the$British$warrior$queen,$

 Bleeding$from$the$Roman$rods,$

 Sought$with$an$indignant$mien,$

 Counsel$of$her$country’s$gods,$

 Sage$beneath$a$spreading$oak,$

 Sat$the$Druid,$hoary$chief;$  Every$burning$word$he$spoke$

 Full$of$rage,$and$full$of$grief.$

7 |

The Narrative of Cultural and Imperial Transfer


 “Boadicea:$An$Ode”$(cont.):$

 ‘Other(Romans(shall(arise,(

 Heedless$of$a$soldier’s$name;$

 Sounds,$not$arms,$shall$win$the$prize—$

 Harmony$the$path$to$fame.$

 ‘Then(the(progeny(that(springs(

 From(the(forests(of(our(land,(

 Armed(with(thunder,(clad(with(wings,(

 Shall(a(wider(world(command.(

 ‘Regions(Caesar(never(knew(

 Thy(posterity(shall(sway,(

 Where(his(eagles(never(flew,(

 None(invincible(as(they.’(

 Such$the$bard’s$prophetic$words,$

 Pregnatn$with$celestial$fire,$

 Bending,$as$he$swept$the$chords,$

 Of$his$sweet$but$awful$lyre.$

 She,$with$a$monarch’s$pride,$Felt$them$in$her$bosom$glow;$

 Rushed$to$battle,$fought,$and$died;$

 Dying,$hurled$them$at$the$foe.$

 Ruffians,$pitiless$as$proud,$

 Heaven$awards$the$vengeance$due:$

 Empire(is(on(us(bestowed,(

 Shame(and(ruin(wait(for(you.(

8 |

Cultural Transfer: The Cantata, “Caractatus”

 H.A.$Ackworth$libretto$for$Elgar’s$cantata$(1897;98)$:$

Do$thy$worst$to$me:$my$people$spare$$

$Whom$fought$for$freedom$in$our$land$at$home.$

Slaves$they$are$not;$be$wise$and$teach$them$there$

Order,$and$law,$and$liberty$with$Rome.$


Georgians,%Victorians,%and%Edwardians%%understood%ancient%Brittania%to%have%absorbed%the%virtues%and%strengths%of%its%conquerors,%the%Romans.%These%virtues%descended%to%the%modern%Britons,%who%identified%deeply%with%Rome%during%their%imperial%expansion.%In%this%gold%sovereign%produced%for%Queen%Elizabeth’s%diamond%jubilee,%one%of%the%first%dies—or%coin%images—from%her%reign%is%reproduced%with%the%new%date.%In%spite%of%her%modern%1950s%hairstyle%and%dress,%she%is%presented%bust%right%(typical%of%Roman%imperial%portraits%on%coins),%with%a%laurel%crown%in%her%hair%and%an%olive%branch%below.%The%latin%legend%reads,%“May%God%direct%my%steps.”%The%coin%uniquely%combines%material%evoking%her%role%as%Fidei$Defensatrix%and%the%legacy%of%British%imperial%sovereigns,%linked%back%to%ancient%Rome%through%the%iconography%of%Roman%emperors%in%the%presentation%of%British%ones.%

9 |

H. C. Coote, A Neglected Fact in English History (1864)

 On$theories$positing$a$Teutonic$origin$of$the$English:*$

 “[the$idea]$post;dates$the$English$origines$and$dries$up$the$springs$of$our$early$history,$the(merits(and(interest$of$which$are$by$this$supposition$lavished(upon(a(race(of(strangers.$It$disentitles$a$large$proportion$of$the$Britons$of$Imperial$Rome$to$the$sympathies$of$the(present(race(of(Englishmen,(between(whom(and(the(Eternal(City(it(leaves(a(gap(without(connection(or(transition.(Provincial(Britain(becomes(a(lost(nation,(and(four(centuries(of(historical(associations,(with(their(momentous(consequences(are(divorced(from(our(annals.”$$

 According$to$Coote’s$theory,$Roman$cultural$and$genetic$heritage$descended$to$the$modern$English$from$ancient$times.$The$arrival$of$“Gallo;Roman”$reinforcements$in$1066$relieved$the$darkness$of$the$Anglo;Saxon$and$Danish$conquests,$so$that$the$British;Roman$descendants$of$Roman$colonists$could$become$“the$creator,$under$providence,$of$the$medieval$and$modern$greatness$of$England.”$

*Hingley, Roman Officers and English Gentlemen: The Imperial Origins of Roman Archaeology, 69-70.

Rome,%Italy.%Trajan’s%Column%(113).%Victory%columns,%like%the%iconography%of%coins,%betray%modern%empires’%ideological%debt%to%Rome.%The%most%famous%is%probably%Nelson’s%Column%in%London.

10 |

Colonization of Ireland in the Roman Style

 In$1565,$Sir$Thomas$Smith$advocated$a$path$of$cultural$extermination$and$settlement$as$the$solution$to$the$“problem”$of$Ireland$in$his$letter$to$the$Secretary$of$State,$William$Cecil:*$$

 ...it(needeth(nothing(more(than(to(have(colonies.$To$augment$our$tongue,$our$laws,$and$our$religion$in$that$Isle,$which$three$be$the$true$bands$of$the$commonwealth$whereby(the(Romans(conquered(and(kept(for(a(long(time(a(great(part(of(the(world.((

*Raman, Renaissance Literature and Postcolonial Studies, 74.

The%portrayal%of%the%British%as%New%Romans%required%the%creation%of%foils%that%could%be%aligned%with%ancient%Rome’s%enemies.%Ireland%fulfilled%this%role,%but%with%imperial%expansion%and%colonial%encounters%with%other%civilizations,%those%new%groups%and%peoples%began%to%function%as%Britain’s%ultimate%others.%

11 |

Colonization of Ireland in the Roman Style

 Sir$FitzWilliam$to$Lord$Burleigh:*$

 This(people...hath(been(long(misled(in(beastly(liberty(and(sensual(immunity(so(as(they(cannot(abide(to(hear(of(correction,$no;$not$for$the$horriblest$sins$that$they$can$commit.$Till$the$sword$have$thoroughly$and$universally$tamed...in$vain$is$law$brought$amongst$them:$nay$dangerously$is$the$bridle$thereof$shaked$towards$them...this$makes$them$all$tooth$and$nail...to$spurn,$kick$and$practice$against$it.$$

 Sir$Henry$Smith,$Queen$Elizabeth’s$Secretary$of$State$to$Lord$FitzWilliam,$Lord$Deputy$of$Ireland.$Smith$proposed$establishing$settlements$in$Ulster$based$“almost$entirely$upon$Roman$methods$of$colonization”*$

 This$I$write$unto$you$as$I$do$understand$by$histories$of$things$past,$how$this(country(of(England,(once(as(uncivil(as(Ireland(now(is,(was(by(colonies(of(the(Romans(brought(to(understand(the(laws(and(orders(of(the(ancient(orders(whereof$there$hath$no(nation(more(straightly(and(truly(kept(the(moulds(even(to(this(day(than(we,(yea(more(than(the(Italians(and(Romans(themselves.((

 $$

*Raman, Renaissance Literature and Postcolonial Studies, 74.

12 |

New Barbarians: Spenser, A Vewe of the present state of Irelande (c. 1598)

 Spenser$advocates$colonization$based$on$a$Roman$model,$but$also$connects$the$Irish$to$the$Gauls$genealogically$through$Spain:$

 Mela,$beinge$himselfe$a$Spaniarde,$yet$saith$to$have$descended$from$the$Celtics$of$Fraunce,$whereby$yt$is$to$be$gathered,$that$that(nacon(which(came(out(of(Spain(into(Ireland(were(auncientlie(Gaules,$and$that$they$brought$with$them$those$letters$which$they$had$learned$in$Spain,$first$into$Ireland,$the$which$some$allso$saye$doe$muche$resemble$the$olde$Phenicon$carracter,$beinge$likewise$distinguished$with$pricke$and$accent,$as$theires$auncyentlie.$

 Spanish$descent$is$itself$an$insult,$and$Spenser$writes$before$the$decline$of$the$Spanish$Empire:$

 Soe$that$all(nacons(under(heaven,(I(suppose,(the(Spaniard(is(the(most(mingled,(most(uncerten,(and(most(bastardlie;(wherefore(most(foolishly(doe(the(Irish(thinke(to(enoble(themselves(by(wrestinge(theire(auncestrie(from(the(Spaniard,$whoe$is$unable$to$deryve$himselfe$from$any$nacon$certen.$$

Nominally%a%work%aimed%at%discovering%Ireland’s%“malady”%in%order%to%cure%it%with%“a%diet%with%streight%rules%and%orders%to%be%dayly%observed,%for%fear%of%relaps%into%the%former%disease”,%Spenser%expands%on%earlier%chronicles%and%genealogies%to%create%the%needed%contrast%to%the%English%link%to%Rome.%%

13 |

New Barbarians: Spenser’s Links between Celtic Tribal Names and the Modern Irish

 Spenser$links$the$Irish$to$ancient$Celts$through$group$names:$

 Moreover$there$be(of(the(olde(Galles(certaine(nacons(yett(remayninge(in(Irelande(which(retaine(the(olde(denominacons(of(the(Galles,$as$the$Manapi,$the$Cauci,$the$Venti$and$others;$by$all$which$and$many$other$very$reasonable$probabilities,$which$this$shorte$course,$will$not$suffer$to$be$laid$forth,$it$appeareth$that$the$cheef$inhabitantes$in$the$Iland$were$Galles$cominge$thither$first$from$Spayne,$and$afterwards$from$besides$Tannius,$where$the$Gothes,$Hunnes,$and$the$Getes$sat$downe,$they$allso$beinge$(as$it$is$said)$of$some$ancient$Galles,$and$lastly(passinge(out(of(Gallia(it(self,(from(all(the(sea(Coaste(of(Belgia(and(Celtica,(into(all(the(sotherne(coastes(of(Ireland,$which$they$possessed$and$inhabited,$whereupon$it$is$at$this$daye,$amongst$all$the$Irishe$a$common$use$to$call$any$strange$inhabitante$there$amongst$them,$Gald,$that$is,$descended$of$[or]$from$the$Gaules.$$

Rome,%Italy.%Justinian’s%Column%(543)

14 |

Spenser and Apocryphal stories of Irish “barbarism”

 The(possession(of(their(Bardes(was,(as(Caesar(writeth,(usuall(amongst(the(Gaules;$and$the$same$was$also$common$amongst$the$Brittans,$and$is$not$yett$altogether$left$of$with$the$Walshe,$which$are$ther$posterity.$…The$longe$dearts$came$also$from$the$Gaules,$as$ye$may$read$in$the$same$Caesar,$and$in$John$Boemius.$Likewise$the$said$Jo.$Boemius$wrighteth,$that$the$Gaules$used$swordes,$a$hanfull$broad,$and$soe$doe$the$Irish$nowe.$Also$that$they$used$long$wicker$sheilds$in$battell$that$should$cover$their$whole$bodyes,$and$soe$doe$the$Northerne$Irish.$But$because$I$have$not$seen$such$fashioned$targettes$in$the$Southerne$partes,$but$only$amongst$those$Northerne$people,$and$Irish$Scottes,$I$doe$thinke$that$they$were$brought$in$rather$by$the$Scythians,$then$by$the$Gaules.$Alsoe(the(Gaules(used(to(drincke(ther(enymyes(blood,(and(to(paynte(themselves(therewith:(soe(alsoe(they(wright,(that(the(ould(Irish(were(wonte,(and(soe(have(I(sene(some(of(the(Irish(doe,(but(not(theire(enymyes(but(frendes(bloode.$As$namely$at$the$execution$of$a$notable$traytor$at$Lymbricke,$called$Murrogh$Obrien,$I$saw$an$ould$woman,$which$was$his$foster$mother,$tooke$up$his$heade,$whilst$he$was$quartered,$and$sucked$up$all$the$blood$running$thereout,$saying,$that$the$earth$was$not$worthy$to$drincke$it,$and$therewith$also$steeped$her$face$and$brest,$and$tare$her$heare,$crying$and$shriking$out$most$terribly.$$

 But$he$also$links$them$through$cultural$practices$he$ascribes$to$them:$

15 |

Theodore Mommsen (1817-1903), The History of Rome

 We(may(be(allowed(to(call(attention(to(the(fact,(that(in(the(accounts(of(the(ancients(as(to(the(Celts(on(the(Loire(and(Seine(we(find(almost(every(one(of(the(characteristic(traits(which(we(are(accustomed(to(recognize(as(marking(the(Irish.$Every$feature$reappears:$the$laziness$in$the$culture$of$the$fields;$the$delight$in$tippling$and$brawling;$the$ostentation—we$may$recall$that$sword$of$Caesar$hung$up$in$the$sacred$grove$of$the$Arvernians$after$the$victory$of$Gergovia,$which$its$alleged$former$owner$viewed$with$a$smile$at$the$consecrated$spot$and$ordered$the$sacred$property$to$be$carefully$spared;$the$language$full$of$comparisons$and$hyperboles,$of$allusions$and$quaint$turns;$the$droll$humour—an$excellent$example$of$which$was$the$rule,$that$if$any$one$interrupted$a$person$speaking$in$public,$a$substantial$and$very$visible$hole$should$be$cut,$as$a$measure$of$police,$in$the$coat$of$the$disturber$of$the$peace;$the$hearty$delight$in$singing$and$reciting$the$deeds$of$past$ages,$and$the$most$decided$talent$for$rhetoric$and$poetry;$the$curiosity—…no$trader$was$allowed$to$pass,$before$he$had$told$in$the$open$street$what$he$knew,$or$did$not$know,$in$the$shape$of$news—and$the$extravagant$credulity$which$acted$on$such$accounts,$for$which$reason$in$the$better$regulated$cantons$travellers$were$prohibited$on$pain$of$severe$punishment$from$communicating$unauthenticated$reports$to$others$than$the$public$magistrates;$$

 $$

 Mommsen$echoes$Spenser’s$$belief$in$the$endurance$of$racial$characteristics$he$identifies$in$his$ancient$sources$and$ascribes$to$the$Irish.$

Theodor Mommsen, The History of Rome (London: Richard Bentley, 1867), 286-287.

16 |

Theodore Mommsen (1817-1903), The History of Rome

 …the$childlike$piety,$which$sees$in$the$priest$a$father$and$asks$him$for$his$advice$in$all$things;$the$unsurpassed$fervour$of$national$feeling,$and$the$closeness$with$which$those$who$are$fellow;countrymen$cling$together$almost$like$one$family$in$opposition$to$the$stranger;$the$inclination$to$rise$in$revolt$under$the$first$chance$leader$that$presents$himself$to$form$bands,$but$at$the$same$time$the$utter$incapacity$to$preserve$a$self;reliant$courage$equally$remote$from$presumption$and$from$pusillanimity,$to$perceive$the$right$time$for$waiting$and$for$striking,$to$attain$or$even$barely$tolerate$any$organization,$any$sort$of$fixed$military$or$political$discipline.$$

 It(is,(and(remains,(at(all(times(and(places(the(same(indolent,(poetical,(irresolute(and(fervid,(inquisitive,(credulous,(amiable,(clever,(but–in(a(political(point(of(view—thoroughly(useless(nation;(and(therefore(its(fate(has(been(always(and(everywhere(the(same.((

Hildesheim%Cathedral,%Germany.%Bernward%Column%(ca.%1000)%This%is%one%of%many%medieval%Christian%columns,%depicting%victories%of%spiritual%rather%than%earthly%powers,%but%note%how%these%columns%coAopt%the%presentation%of%Roman%ones.%This%column%copies%the%helix%pattern%of%Trajan’s%column%with%its%individual%scenes%of%the%subjugation%of%unruly%peoples.%

17 |

Barbarism and Paternalism in the Age of Empire

 Émile$Faguet:$

 The(barbarian(is(of(the(same(race,(after(all,(as(the(Roman(and(the(Greek.(He(is(a(cousin.(The(yellow(man,(the(black(man,(is(not(our(cousin(at(all.(Here(there(is(a(real(difference,(a(real(distance,$and$a$very$great$one:$an$ethnological$distance.$After$all,$civilization(has(never(yet(been(made(except(by(whites.$.$.$If$Europe$becomes$yellow,$there$will$certainly$be$a$regression,$a$new$period$of$darkness$and$confusion,$that$is,$another$Middle$Ages.$$

 J.$R.$Seeley,$The%Expansion%of%England%(1883):%

 We$do$not$now$read$...$[history]$simply$for$pleasure,$but$in$order$that$we$may$discover$the$laws$of$political$growth$and$change$...$We$have$also$learnt$that(there(are(many(good(things(in(politics(beside(liberty;(for(instance(there(is(nationality,(there(is(civilisation.$Now(it(often(happens(that(a(Government(which(allows(no(liberty(is(nevertheless(most(valuable(and(most(favourable(to(progress(towards(these(other(goals.((

As%European%empires%expanded,%the%colonial%encounter%with%civilizations%comprised%of%individuals%of%very%different%races%led%to%a%reAevaluation%of%what%being%a%“barbarian”%might%mean%and%the%value%of%sharing%“civilization”.%

 Francis$Haverfield,$“The$Romanization$of$Roman$Britain”,$Proceedings%of%the%British%Academy%(1905):$

 Uncivilized(Africans(or(Asiatics(seem$sundered(for(ever(from(their(conquerors(by$a$broad$physical$distinction.$$

18 |

The Racial Hierarchies of Empire

 The(regeneration(of(the(inferior(or(degenerate(races(by(the(superior(races(is(part(of(the(providential(order(of(things(for(humanity.$With$us,$the$common$man$is$nearly$always$a$déclasse$nobleman,$his$heavy$hand$is$better$suited$to$handling$the$sword$than$the$menial$tool.$Rather$than$work,$he$chooses$to$fight,$that$is,$he$returns$to$his$first$estate.$Regere$imperio$populos,$that$is$our$vocation.$Pour$forth$this$all;consuming$activity$onto$countries$which,$like$China,$are$crying$aloud$for$foreign$conquest.$Turn$the$adventurers$who$disturb$European$society$into$a$ver$sacrum,$a$horde$like$those$of$the$Franks,$the$Lombards,$or$the$Normans,$and$every$man$will$be$in$his$right$role.$Nature$has$made$a$race$of$workers,$the$Chinese$race,$who$have$wonderful$manual$dexterity$and$almost$no$sense$of$honor;$govern$them$with$justice,$levying$from$them,$in$return$for$the$blessing$of$such$a$government,$an$ample$allowance$for$the$conquering$race,$and$they$will$be$satisfied;$a$race$of$tillers$of$the$soil,$the$Negro;$treat$him$with$kindness$and$humanity,$and$all$will$be$as$it$should;$a$race$of$masters$and$soldiers,$the$European$race.$Reduce$this$noble$race$to$working$in$the$ergastulum$like$Negroes$and$Chinese,$and$they$rebel.$In(Europe,(every(rebel(is,(more(or(less,(a(soldier(who(has(missed(his(calling,(a(creature(made(for(the(heroic(life,(before(whom(you(are(setting(a(task(that(is(contrary(to(his(race—a(poor(worker,(too(good(a(soldier.(But(the(life(at(which(our(workers(rebel(would(make(a(Chinese(or(a(fellah(happy,(as(they(are(not(military(creatures(in(the(least.(Let(each(one(do(what(he(is(made(for,(and(all(will(be(well.((

 Ernest$Renan$(1823;1892)$wrote$at$length$about$how$1)$certain$races$were$destined$to$particular$forms$of$labor$according$to$a$racialized$hierarchy$and$2)$that$“inferior$or$degenerate$races”$would$be$regenerated$by$the$“superior”$(read:$European)$races.$This$passage$from$Le%Reforme%Intellectuelle%et%Morale$is$peppered$with$Latin$phrases$that$evoke$justifying$discursive$role$of$the$Roman$Empire.$

British Imperial Missionaries

A$Christian$British$Empire$

Paul$as$Model$Missionary$where$Rome$is$Model$Empire$

Paul$as$Exemplar$in$Death$and$Suffering$

Christianity$v.$Heathenism$

Equating$Ancient$“Heathenism”$with$Colonial$“Heathenism”$

Language$of$Light,$“Heathen$Darkness”,$and$Race$

Racism$and$Paternalistic$Appropriation$in$Missionary$Thought$

The$Compatibility$of$Mission$and$Empire$

20 |

A Christian British Empire

 Rudyard$Kipling$and$C.R.L.$Fletcher,$A%School%History%of%England%(1911):%

 The(justice(and(mercy,$which$these$countries$had(not(known(since(the(fall(of(the(Roman(Empire(is(now(in(full(measure(given$them$by(the(British.((

 A$popular$poem$from$Victorian$Christian$circulars:$

 The(earth$with$all$its$fullness$is(the(Lord’s.$Great$things$attempt$for$Him,$great$things$expect,$$$Whose(love(imperial(is,(Whose(power(sublime.(

 Richard$Hakluyt$the$Elder$(c.1553;1616)$to$Sir$Walter$Raleigh:$

 Nothing(more(glorious(or(honourable$can$be$handed$down$to$the$future$than(to(tame(the(barbarian,$to(bring(back(the(savage$and$the$pagan$to$the$fellowship$of$civil$existence$and$to(induce(reverence(for(the(Holy(Spirit$into$atheists$and$others$distant$from$God.$$

21 |

Paul as Model Missionary where Rome is Model Empire

 Sam$Stevenson,$“The$Source$of$Missionary$Enthusiasm,”$in$The%Lightbearer,$vol.$8$(1912),$78$

 “The$love$of$Christ$is$our$incentive”$II.$Corinthians$v.$14.$This$passage$of$Scripture$is$St.$Paul’s$answer$to$his$enemies$who$charged$him$with$being$mad.$His$movements$and$methods$of$work$were$so$much$out$of$the$ordinary$as$to$appear$extravagant.$His$zeal$in$Christ’s$service$was$untamed$by$opposition,$his$interest$unflagging.$$

 He(is(the(unique(Missionary.(The(need(of(to`day(undoubtedly(is—men(and(women(consumed(with(the(love(of(God,(men(and(women(ready(to(emulate(the(apostle’s(example.(The$only$hope$for$this$coming$about$is$to$get$people$to$go$to$the$source$of$the$apostle’s$inspiration.$And$what$that$was,$is$told$us$in$the$passage$quoted$above—“The$love$of$Christ”$$

$$

Florence,%Italy.%Colonna%di%san%Zanobi%(before%1333).%This%simple%column%is%crowned%with%a%cross.%

22 |


 Stevenson,$“The$Source$of$Missionary$Enthusiasm,”$78$

 His(missionary(tours(are(marvels(of(accomplishment.(They(put(to(shame(our(feeble(achievements(in(the(Mission(field.(His$writings$too$are$marvellous.$They$are$all$the$product$of$that$fiery$ardour.$They$are$not$mere$memoirs;$they$are$his$spirit$and$his$life.$And$the$explanation$of$all$his$accomplishments$is$given$in$Galatians$ii.20—‘I$am$crucified$with$Christ,$nevertheless$I$live$by$the$power$of$the$indwelling$Christ.’$

 Paul$was$in$union$with$Christ$and$shared$the$value$of$Christ’s$death$and$the$power$of$His$resurrection.$$

 The$love$of$Christ$created$in$Paul$a$fire$of$love$that$acted$like$the$sacrificial$fire$on$the$altar$consuming$the$sacrifice,$for$Paul(was(consumed(as(he(spent(himself(in(sacrificial(service.(This,(then—the(love(of(Christ—is(the(dynamo(of(spiritual(power.(It(is(the(cure(for(the(manifest(apathy(shown(toward(Missions(to(the(heathen.($

 $$

Munich,%Germany.%Mariensäule%(1638).%This%column%features%Mary%with%the%infant%Christ;%she%appears%as%the%Queen%of%Heaven%standing%on%a%crescent.%

23 |


The%Indian%Female%Evangelist%(London:$James$Nisbet$&$Co.,$1875),$60$

 And(so(it(has(been,$not$only$with(Abraham(and(Paul,$but$with$all$God’s$people—with(the(teachers(of(our(own(day;$with$the$founders$of$the(most(successful(missions,$both$at$home$and$abroad.$$

Blenheim%Palace,%England.%Column%of%Victory%(1730).%This%column%marks%a%return%to%victory%columns%that%celebrate%military%heroes%and%victories.%

24 |

Paul as Exemplar in Death and in Suffering

 The%Missionary%Papers,%1816A1878,$Church$Missionary$Paper,$No.$CCX.$June,$1868$

 I$passed$by$the$place$in$a$boat,$but$severe$illness$prevented$my$remaining.$In$a$day$or$two$after,$the$catechist$and$a$few$of$the$Christians$came$all$the$way$to$ascertain$the$nature$of$my$illness,$and$to$assure$me$that,$from$the$moment$they$heard$I$had$been$ill,$continual$prayer$had$been$made$by$them$all$for$my$speedy$recovery.$I$need$not$say$what$real$pleasure$this$assurance$afforded$me.$The(joy(thus(felt(can(be(realized,(I(believe,(only(by(the(Missionary(under(similar(circumstances,(and(the(feelings(of(the(Apostle(St.(Paul(are(better(understood(from(such(experiences(than(from(the(most(learned(disquisitions(of(all(his(commentators.(I$visited$Ming;ang;teng$for$the$first$time$three$years$ago:$I$was$then$hooted$and$laughed$at.$There$was$not$a$Christian$there$at$that$time,$nor$one$who$knew$any$thing$of$Jesus$Christ.$Now,$when$I$am$weak$and$sick,$from$the$very$place,$and$from$among$the$very$people,$comes$a$message$of$affectionate$sympathy,$and$an$assurance$that$continued$prayer$is$offered$on$my$behalf$at$the$throne$of$grace$by$a$goodly$number$of,$I$believe$and$hope,$earnest$and$sincere$brethren$and$sisters$in$Christ.$$

Stowe%Park,%England.%The%Grenville%Column%(1749)%

25 |

Paul as Exemplar in Death and in Suffering

 Richard$Lovett,$The%History%of%the%London%Missionary%Society,$vol.$2$(London:$Henry$Frowde;$Oxford$University$Press,$1899),$136.$$

 Throughout$his$life$[Mr.$Hay]$kept$the$thin,$spare,$erect$frame$he$had$when$he$came$to$the$country.$Looking(at(his(well`poised(head,(his(clear`cut(face,(and(his(lofty,(dome`like(forehead,(you(felt(the(presence(of(an(old(warrior`saint,(such(an(one(as(Paul(the(aged,(whom$no$opposition$could$daunt$and$whose$indomitableness$no$obstacle$could$conquer.$$

Dublin,%Ireland.%Nelson’s%Column%(1809)%

26 |

Christianity v. Heathenism

 …their(feet(have(been(swift(to(shed(blood,(and(human(sacrifices(have(been(almost(universally(practiced.(Such(was(Corinth,(when(St.(Paul(first(preached(the(Gospel(there,$and$established$a$Christian$Church.$He$then$addressed$them,$Ye$know$that$ye$were$Gentiles,$carried$away$unto$dumb$Idols,$even$as$ye$were$led.$Such(were(Greece(and(Rome,(with$all$their$boasted$refinement;$such(are(Pagan(Countries(and(Idolatrous(Islands(to(the(present(day.($

 Such(once(was(Britain!(Is(it(possible,(that(an(inhabitant(of(this(favoured(Island(can(look(at(the(Altar(of(Human(Sacrifice(without(horror;(without(gratitude(to(God,(who(has(redeemed(him(from$such$horrible$cruelties;$and$without(sympathy(and$compassion$to(the(many$thousands,$yea,$millions,$who$are$now(remaining(in(darkness(and(the(land(of(the(shadow(of(death?($

 The%Missionary%Papers,%1816A1878,$no.$LIII.$Lady;Day,$1829$$

 For$this$detestable$impiety,$this$contempt$of$the$pure$and$holy$worship$of$JEHOVAH,$the$One$Living$and$True$God,(the(Almighty(hath,(in(righteous(indignation,(given(them(up(to(follow(their(own(devices.$Idolatry$has$

proved$the$fatal$source$of$crimes$the$most$flagrant$and$abominable$nations$which$worship$Idols$have$been,$and$now$are,$distinguished$for$pride$and$cruelty,$intoxication$and$lust,$indolence,$tyranny,$and$revenge:$

27 |

Equating “Heathenism” in the Colonies and Ancient Heathenism

The%Church%Missionary%Quarterly%Token:%“A%Book%of%Missionary%Incident%and%Instruction”$(Church$Missionary$House,$1856;1865),$no.$11$October$1858$$

 But$what$can$one$expect$from$those$who$have$been$born$and$brought$up$in$heathen$darkness?$‘Unmerciful’(is(one(of(the(terms(St.(Paul(applies(to(the(heathen(in$the$first$chapter$of$the$Epistle$to$the$Romans.$They(were(so(in(the(Apostle’s(days,(and(they(are(so(still.$$

 The%Missionary%Papers,%1816A1878,$Missionary$Papers,$No.$XXXIX.$Michaelmas,$1825$$

 This$is$the(testimony(of(these(Heathens(against(themselves:$and$it(proves(that$the(awful(description(of$the$Gentiles$given(by(St.(Paul(in$the$latter$part$of$the$First$Chapter$to$the$Romans$is$true$of$these$miserable$men.$They$celebrate$with$feasting$and$shouts$the$acts$of$Falsehood$and$Impurity$of$their$pretended$god$[Krishna],$and$to$Falsehood$and$Impurity$they$are$themselves$devoted!$$

Paris,%France.%Colonne%Vendôme%(1809).%This%column%recalls%the%helix%pattern%of%Trajan’s%column.%Napoleon%stands%at%the%top.%

28 |

Equating “Heathenism” in the Colonies and Ancient Heathenism

 Robert$Ward,$Life%Among%the%Maories%of%New%Zealand:%Being%a%Description%of%Missionary,%Colonial%and%Military%Achievements%(Canada:$G.$Lamb,$1872),$98;99$$

 We$cannot$conclude$this$chapter$in$more$appropriate$language$than$that$used$by$the(apostle(Paul(in(describing(the(effects(of(heathenism(eighteen(centuries(ago;$only$remarking$that$the(inspired(expressions(were(applicable(to(the(people(of(New(Zealand,(and(of(Polynesia(in(general,(in(an(intenser(degree(than(they$were$probably$applied,$at$least,$in$some$respects,$to$the(heathen(of(ancient(times:“God$also$gave$them$up$to$uncleanness$through$the$lusts$of$their$own$hearts,$to$dishonour$their$own$bodies$between$themselves.$.$.$to$vile$affections.$.$.$to$a$reprobate$mind,$to$do$those$things$which$are$not$convenient;$being$filled$with$all$unrighteousnessness,$fornication,$wickedness,$covetousness,$maliciousness;$full$of$envy,$murder,$debate,$deceit,$malignity;$whisperers,$backbiters,$haters$of$God,$despiteful,$proud,$boasters,$inventors$of$evil$things,$disobedient$to$parents,$without$understanding,$covenant$breakers,$without$natural$affections,$implacable,$unmerciful.$

Great%Yarmouth,%England.%Britannia%Monument%(1819).%Britannia%tops%this%column%and%stands%on%a%globe%of%the%world,%supported%by%caryatids.%

29 |

Language of Light, “Heathen Darkness” and Race

 Mary$Gaunt,$Alone%in%West%Africa%(New$York:$Scribner,$1912),$78;9$

 Now$most$settlements$along$the$Coast$[of$West$Africa]$are$busy,$prosperous,$and$above$all,$sanitary.$Only$in$Liberia,$the$civilised$black$man’s$own$country,$does$a$different$state$of$things$prevail;$only$here$has$the$movement$been$retro;$grade.$.$.$Who$shall$say$that$some$ultimate$good$may$not$yet$come$for$beautiful,$wealthy,$poverty;stricken$Liberia.$That$the$civilised$nations,$sinking$their$own$jealousies,$may$step$in$and$save$her$despite$herself,$I$think,$is$the$only$hope.$But(it(must(be(as(Paul(would(have(saved,(not(as(the(pitiful(Christ...to(me(Liberia(seems(to(be(stretching(out(her(hands(crying(dumbly(to(the(white(man(the(cry(that(came(across(the(water(of(old,(the(cry(the(missionary(girl(listened(to,(the(cry(of(Macedonia,(‘Come(over(and(help(us.($

Nantes,%France.%Column%of%Louis%XVI%(1823).%Louis%XVI%appears%at%the%top%of%this%column%in%a%toga,%directly%referencing%the%Roman%past.%

30 |


 William$Carey,$An%Enquiry%into%the%Obligations%of%the%Christians:%to%use%means%for%the%Conversion%of%the%Heathens.%In%which%the%religious%state%of%the%different%nations%of%the%world,%the%success%of%former%undertakings,%and%the%practicability%of%further%undertakings,%are%considered%(Leicester:$Printed$/$Sold$by$Ann$Ireland$[etc.],$1792),$10$

 Alas!$the$far(greater(part(of(the(world,$as$we$shall$see$presently,$are$still(covered(with(heathen(darkness!$Nor$can$we$produce$a$counter;revelation,$concerning$any$particular$nation,$like$that$to$Paul$and$Silas,$when$forbidden$to$preach$to$those$heathens,$went$elsewhere,$and$preached$to$others.$Neither$can$we$alledge$[sic]$a$natural$impossibility$in$the$case.$$

Baltimore,%Maryland.%Washington%Monument%(1829)%

31 |


C.$F.$Pascoe,$Two%Hundred%Years%of%the%S.P.G:%An%Historical%Account%of%the%Society%for%the%Propagation%of%the%Gospel%in%Foreign%Parts,$vol.$1$(London:$Published$at$the$Society’s$Office,$1901),$316d;e$

[The$Church]$trying$to$do$her$duty$to$the$natives—$‘to$give$them$the$best$we$can,$to$train$them.$.$.$that$we$may$use$them$for$carrying$on$the$light$which$they$gain$here$to$the(darkest(corners(of(South(Africa’—$and$the$Bishop’s$charge$contained$a$stirring$appeal(to(Churchmen(to(take(up(their(share(of(‘the(white(man’s(burden’;$doing$what$we$can$to$spell$out$this$mystery$which$is$being$unfolded$to$us,$as$great$as$was$the$mystery$seen$by$St.$Paul—the$place$of$the$native$of$Africa$in$the$Christian$Church$of$the$world.$God$has$set$us$our$task,$we$must$bear$it.’$$

London,%England.%Nelson’s%Column%(1843).%This%is%probably%the%most%famous%modern%victory%column.%Admiral%Nelson%appears%at%the%top,%surveying%Trafalgar%Square%below.%

32 |

Racism and Paternalistic Appropriation in Missionary Thought

 H.$R.$Fox$Bourne,$The%Claims%of%Uncivilised%Races:%A%Paper%Submitted%to%the%International%Congress%on%Colonial%Sociology,$Paris$(Aborigines$Protection$Society,$1900),$7$$

 It$may$be$true$not$only$that$enlightened(Europeans(have(a(right,(but(it(is(also(their(duty,(to(aim(at(the(overthrow(of(barbarism(and(at(the(improvement(of(regions(which(have(hitherto(been(insufficiently(or(improperly(used,(as(well(as(of(people(who(have(hitherto(been(the(victims(of(their(own(or(others’(faults.$But$the$economic,$as$well$as$the$ethical,$principles$which$our$modern$civilisation$boasts$that$it$has$firmly$established,$in$theory$at$any$rate,$forbid(the(perpetration(of(a(crime(in(order(that(other(and(even(greater(crimes(may(be(averted.$Condemning,$with$St.$Paul,$the$doctrine,$“Let$us$do$evil$that$good$may$come,”$those$principles$support$the$Christian$rule.$“As$ye$would$that$men$should$do$to$you,$do$ye$also$to$them$likewise.”$The(abominations(indulged(in(by(ignorant(savages(are(no(excuse(for(any(approach(towards(imitation(of(them(by(people(claiming(to(be(civilised(and(to(be(engaged(in(civilising(work.$‘Thou$shalt$not$kill;$thou$shalt$not$steal;$thou$shalt$not$covet$thy$neighbour’s$goods,’$are$commandments(more(binding(on(educated(white(men(than(on(benighted(blacks.$$

Berlin,%Germany.%Siegessäule%(1873).%Liberty%appears%at%the%top%of%this%enormous%column.%She%carries%a%victory%wreath%and%a%staff%with%a%cross%and%fillets.%

33 |


The(great(service(which$the$European(nations$and$peoples$of$the$Western$civilisation(can(render(to(the(Asiatic,(African,(American,(and(Oceanean(peoples(is(the$imparting(to$them$the(fullest(knowledge(of(the(arts(and(sciences(which$have$matured$in$Europe.$.$.$$

 In(exchange(the(Asiatic,(African,(American,(and(Oceanean(peoples(will(cheerfully(and(heartily(coòperate(with(the(European(peoples(in(the(great(work(of(developing(to(the(uttermost(degree(the(vast(economic(resources(of$the$tropical$and$sub;tropical$regions$wherein$the$European$variety$of$the$Genus$Homo$endowed$with$an$‘unpigmented$skin’$can$neither$work$nor$fight$in$the$open$continuously$and$simultaneously$continue$their$own$variety$of$the$Genus$Homo.$.$.$$

 The(Christian(principles(and(methods(of(Federal(Government(were(enunciated(by(St.(Paul(in$the$following$paraphrased$or$adapted$quotations$from$chapter$12$of$his$first$epistle$to$the$Corinthians,$which$are$applicable(not(only(to(the(organisation(of(spiritual(power,(but(are(applicable,(also,(to(the(organisation(of(temporal(power.((

 ‘Now$concerning$spiritual$gifts,$brethren,$I$would$not$have$you$ignorant.$.$.$Now$there$are$diversities$of$gifts,$but$the$same$spirit$of$scientific$and$artistic$excellence.$.$.$And$there$are$differences$of$administrations,$but$the$same$Lord$of$emotional$and$sympathetic$devotion.$.$.$$$

 Jas$C.$Smith,$“Now$We$Are$The$Body$of$the$British$Empire”,$in%The%African%Times%and%Orient%Review,$ed.$Duse$Mohamed,$vol.$1$(London:$African$Times$/$Orient$Review,$1912),$14;15.$(Cont.)$

34 |


 And$there$are$diversities$of$operations,$but$it$is$the$same$God$of$truth$and$righteousness$which$worketh$all$in$all.$But$the$manifestation$of$the$spirit$“of$patriotism”$is$given$to$every$man$to$profit$withal.$.$.$But$all.$.$.$worketh$that$one$and$the$self;same$spirit$“of$patriotism,”$di$viding$to$every$man,$severally,$as$he$will.$For$as$the$body$is$one,$and$hath$many$members,$and$all$the$members$of$that$one$body,$being$many,$are$one$body,$so$also$is$the$one$body$of$the$British$Empire.’$$

 For(by(one(Spirit(of(Patriotism(are(we(baptised(into(one(United(Empire,(whether(we(be(Europeans,(Asiatics,(Africans,(Americans,(or(Oceaneans;(and(have(been(all(sworn(to(bear(faithful(and(true(allegiance(unto(one(Sovereign(KingÈmperor,(according(to(one(law(of(the(devolution(of(the(Crown.((

 …Nay,$much$more,$those$peoples$of$the$British$Empire,$which$seem$to$be$more$backward,$are$equally$necessary$for$executing$the$work$of$the$development$of$the$resources$of$territories$situate$within$the$tropical$and$sub;tropical$regions$of$this$planet,$and,$also,$for$the$military$and$naval$protection$and$defence$of$these$territories,$as$are$those(nations(and$peoples,$of$the$British$Empire,$which$are$now$the$most(advanced,$which$execute(the(work(of(development(of(the(resources(of$our$territories$within$the$temperate$regions,$and$for$the$military(and(naval(defence(of(these(territories.$$

$$

 Jas$C.$Smith,$“Now$We$Are$The$Body$of$the$British$Empire”,$in%The%African%Times%and%Orient%Review,$ed.$Duse$Mohamed,$vol.$1$(London:$African$Times$/$Orient$Review,$1912),$14;15.$(Cont.)$

35 |

The Compatibility of Mission and Empire

 Rev.$Barde:*$

 [if$global$resources]$remained$divided(up$indefinitely,$as$they$would$be$without$colonization,$they(would(answer(neither(the(purposes(of(God(nor(the(just(demands(of(the(human(collectivity.$

 Rev.$Müller:*$

 humanity(must(not,(cannot(allow(the(incompetence,(negligence,(and(laziness(of(the$uncivilized(peoples(to(leave(idle(indefinitely$the(wealth(which$God(has$confided(to(them,$charging$them$to$make$it$serve$the$good$of$all.$$

* As cited by Aimé Césaire, Discourse on Colonialism, 17

 Richard$Hakluyt$the$Elder’s$(1553;1616)$“Reasons$for$Colonisation”$(c.$1585),$written$to$support$English$expansion$into$Virginia.$$

The$ends$of$this$voyage$are$these:$To$plant(Christian(religion.$To$traffic.$ $ $ $Or,$to(do(all(three.$$To$conquer.( $ $$

Anti-Imperial Biblical Scholarship

An$Anti;imperialism$with$No$Threat$to$the$Status$Quo$

Paul’s$Lasting$Significance$as$a$Model$to$Christians$

Binary$Divisions$of$Ancient$Society$Based$on$Allegiance$to$Paul$

Paternalism$

Paul’s$Imperial$Language$as$a$Positive$

Imperial$Language$Used$as$a$Positive$

37 |

 Joseph$B.$Lightfoot,$St.%Paul’s%Epistle%to%the%Galatians%(1866),%1A2,%64.%

We$may$expect$to$have$light$thrown$upon$the$broad$features$of$national(character(which$thus$confront$us,$by$the$circumstances$of$the$descent$and$previous$history$of$the(race,$while$at$the$same$time$such$a$sketch$will$prepare$the$way$for$the$solution$of$some$questions$of$interest,$which$start$up$in$connexion$to$the$epistle.$

 (64)$He$is$dealing$with(a(thoughtless(half`barbarous(people.$They$have$erred$like$children,$and$must$be$chastised$like$children.$Rebuke(may(prevail(where(reason(will(be(powerless.(

Discourses Present in Imperial Biblical Scholarship

 Joseph$B.$Lightfoot,$St.%Paul’s%Epistle%to%the%Galatians%(1866),%187.$

 The$life$of$the$greatest$and$best$of$English(kings$presents$so(close(a(parallel(to(the(Apostle's(thorn(in(the(flesh,$that$I$cannot$forbear$quoting$the$passage$[from$Jowett]$at$length,$though$the$illustration$is$not$my$own.$$

In%J.%B.%Lightfoot’s%writings,%we%find%(1)%Paul%compared%to%English%kings,%(2)%his%audiences%derided%as%stupid%barbarians%(the%Galatians)%or%vicious%Greeks%(the%Corinthians)%,%and%(3)%Paul’s%activities%evaluated%through%a%paternalistic%lens:%his%great%spiritual%gifts%are%lost%on%his%audiences%because%of%the%inherent%failings%of%their%race(s).%

38 |

Discourses Present in Imperial Biblical Scholarship

 Joseph$B.$Lightfoot,$St.%Paul’s%Epistle%to%the%Galatians%(1866),$30.$

 These(errors(found(in(Galatia(a(congenial(soil.$The$corruption$took$the$direction$which$might$have$been$expected$from$the$religious$education$of$the$people.$A$passionate$and$striking$ritualism$expressing$itself$in$bodily$mortifications$of$the$most$terrible$kind$had$been$supplanted$by$the$simple$spiritual$teaching$of$the$Gospel.(For(a(time(the(pure(morality(and(lofty(sanctions(of(the(faith(appealed$not$in$vain$to$their$higher$instincts,$but(they(soon(began(to(yearn(after(a(creed(which(suited(their(material(cravings(better,$and$was$more$allied$to$the$system$they$had$abandoned.(This(end(they(attained(by(overlaying(the(simplicity(of(the(Gospel(with(Judaic(observances.(This$new$phase$of$their$religious$life$is$ascribed(by(St.(Paul(himself(to(the(temper(which(their(old(heathen(education(had(fostered.$It$was$a$return$to$the$`weak$and$beggarly$elements'$which$they$had$outgrown,$a$renewed$subjection$to$the$`yoke$of$bondage'$which$they$had$thrown$off$in$Christ.$They$had$escaped$from$one$ritualistic$system$only$to$bow$before$another.(The(innate(failings(of(a(race(èxcessive(in(its(devotion(to(external(observances'(was(here(reasserting(itself(

Surprisingly,%some%aspects%of%these%discourses—these%ways%of%framing%history,%identity,%and%the%contemporary—continue%to%resonate%in%contemporary%“antiAimperial”%biblical%scholarship.%

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An Anti-Imperialism with No Threat to the Status Quo

 Wright,$N.$T.$Paul:$Fresh%Perspectives.%London:$SPCK,$2005,$78$

 Precisely$because$of$all$the$counter;imperial$hints$Paul$has$given$not$only$in$this$letter$and$elsewhere$but$indeed$by$his$entire$gospel,$it(is(vital(that(he(steer(Christians(away(from$the$assumption$that$loyalty$to$Jesus$would$mean$the$kind$of$civil(disobedience(and(revolution(that(merely(reshuffles(the(political(cards$into$a$different$order.$

 Wright,$N.$T.$Paul:$Fresh%Perspectives.%London:$SPCK,$2005,$76;77$

 [On$Paul’s$message$in$Romans]$Jesus$is$the$world’s$true$Lord,$constituted$as$such$by$his$resurrection.$He(claims(the(whole(world,(summoning(them$to$the(‘obedience(of(faith’,$that$obedient$loyalty$which(outmatches(the(loyalty(Caesar(demanded.$…Through$the$gospel,$in$other$words,$the(one(true(God(is(claiming(the(allegiance(of(the(entire(world,$since$the$gospel$itself$carries$the$same$power$which$raises$Jesus$from$the$dead,$unveiling$the$true$salvation$and$the$true$justice$before$a$world$where$those$were$already$key$imperial$buzzwords.$

New%Haven,%Connecticut.%Soldiers%and%Sailors%Monument%(1887).%The%soliders%at%the%base%represent%diferent%wars%(Revolutionary%War,%War%of%1812,%Civil%War,%and%SpanishAAmerican%War).%

40 |Barcelona,%Spain.%Columbus%Monument%(1888)%

Paul’s Lasting Significance as a Model to Christians

 Horsley$and$Silberman.$The%Message%and%the%Kingdom:%How%Jesus%and%Paul%Ignited%a%Revolution%and%Transformed%the%Ancient%World.%New$York:$Grossett/Putnam,$1997,$231$

 The$movement$that$began$with$Jesus$of$Nazareth$was$primarily$concerned$with$the$way$that$people$could$somehow$resist$exploitation$by$the$rich$and$powerful,(without(either(surrendering(their(traditions(or(resorting(to(violence.$Likewise,$the$Apostle$Paul;;;in$his$wide;ranging$travels$throughout$the$lands$of$the$Eastern$Empire;;;engaged$in$a$career$of$confrontation$with$the$forces$of$patronage$and$empire$and$died$in$the$attempt.$Time(and(again(over(the(succeeding(centuries(the(same(struggle(would(be(waged.$Whether(in(the$heretical$Christian$sects$of$Asia$Minor,$the$mystical$brotherhoods$of$the$Middle$Ages,(the(radical(religious(groups(of(the(Reformation,(the(utopian(communities(of(nineteenth`century(America,(or(the(visionary,(idealistic(political(movements(of(the(present,(the(quest(for(the(Kingdom(of(God(lives(on.$To$many$scholars,$the$often;failed$protests$of$common$people$are$merely$footnotes$to$the$mainstream$history$of$Christianity,$which$is$traced$through$the$official$chronicles$of$church$councils$and$the$respectful$biographies$of$church$leaders$and$kings.$Certainly$the$words$and$deeds$of$the$rich$and$famous$should$not$be$ignored$or$neglected,$but$they$are$only$part$of$a$great,$complex$mosaic$of$social$and$religious$change.$$

Photo by David Iliff. License: CC-BY-SA 3.0

41 |

 Richard$Horsley,.$"1$Corinthians:$A$Case$Study$of$Paul's$Assembly$as$an$Alternative$Society."$in$Paul%&%Empire:%Religion%and%Power%in%Roman%Imperial%Society,%edited$by$Richard$A.$Horsley.$Harrisburg,$PA:$Trinity$Press$International,$1997,$244.$

 …In$1$Corinthians(his(gospel,(mission,$and$the$struggles$of$his$assembly$are(part(of(God’s(fulfillment(of(history(in(the(doom(and(destruction(of(Roman(imperial(rule.(

Binary Divisions of Ancient Society Based on Allegiance to Paul

 Richard$Horlsey,$“1$Corinthians”,$$244.$

 But$it$is$through$the$despicably$crucified$Christ$and$now$his$lowborn,$weak,$and$despised$followers,$the$Corinthian$believers$themselves,$that$God(has(shamed(the(pretentious(elite(questing(after(power,(wealth,(wisdom,(noble(birth,(and(honorific(public(office$(1:21;23,$26;29;$4:8,10).$These$terms,$of$course,$in$their$literal$meaning,$describe$not$simply$a$cultural$elite$but$the$provincial$(Corinthian)$political$elite.$$

42 |


 Richard$Horsley,$“1$Corinthians”,$245;6.$

 Second,$beside$urging$group$solidarity,$Paul(insisted(that$the$Corinthian$assembly(conduct(its(own(affairs(autonomously,(in(complete(independence(of(“the(world”,(as$he$writes$in$no$uncertain$terms$in$1$Corinthians$5;6.$That$did$not$mean$completely$shutting$themselves$off$from$the$society$in$which$they$lived.$The$purpose(of(the(mission,$of$course,$was$to$bring(people(into(the(community.$The$believers$should$thus$not$cut$off$all$contact$with$“the$immoral$of$this$world,$or$the$greedy,$and$robbers”$(5:10).$The$assembly,$however,$should$not$only((a)(maintain(ethical(purity(and(group(discipline(in(stark(opposition(to(the(injustice(of(the(dominant(society,(but(also((b)(it(should(handle(its(own(disputes(in(absolute(independence$of$the$established$courts…$

The(assembly(stands(diametrically(opposed(to(“the(world”(as(a(community(of(“saints”.(

43 |


 Richard$Horsley,$“1$Corinthians”,$248.$

 In$contrast(to(the(dominant(society(in$which$many$overlapping$social$bonds$were$established$in$sacrifices$to$multiple$gods,$however,$the$assembly$of$sharers$in$the$body$of$Christ$was$exclusive.$It$was$simply(impossible(and(forbidden(therefore(for(members(of(the(body(politic(established(and(perpetuated(in(the(cup(and(table(of(the(Lord(to(partake(also(in(the(cup(and(table(of(demons.(

 Richard$Horsley,$“1$Corinthians”,$249.$

 In$his$concern$to$“build$up”$the(assembly(of(saints(over(against(the(networks(of(power(relations(by(which(the(imperial(society(was(constituted,$he$could$not$allow$those$who$had$joined$the$assembly$to$participate$in$the$sacrificial$banquets$by$which$those$social$relations$were$ritually$established.$

44 |

Paternalism

 Horsley$and$Silberman.$The%Message%and%the%Kingdom:%How%Jesus%and%Paul%Ignited%a%Revolution%and%Transformed%the%Ancient%World.$New$York:$Grossett/Putnam,$1997,$169$

 The$idea$that$villagers$of$the$Galatian$highlands$should$abandon$their$own$village$traditions$and$adopt$the$festivals,$laws,$and$ceremonies$of$Israel$in$order$to$gain$a$share$in$God's$kingdom$struck$Paul$as$a$direct$challenge$to$all$the$work$that$he$had$been$carrying$out$for$the$previous$years.$Having$grown$to$understand$the$economic$and$political$plight$of$the$Galatians$during$his$sojourn$among$them,$Paul(believed(that(he(knew(far(better(than$the$newly$arrived$apostles$how(the(Galatian(peasantry(could(best(survive(under(the(new(conditions(of(empire(and(so(inherit—on(their(own(terms—the(Kingdom(of(God.$%

SaintADenis,%Réunion.%Colonne%de%la%Victoire%(1923)%

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Paternalism Richard$Horsley,$“1$Corinthians”,$243.$

 Populated$by$the$descendants$of$Roman$riffraff$and$deracinated$former$slaves,$Corinth$was$the$epitome$of$urban$society$created$by$empire:$a$conglomeration$of$atomized$individuals$cut$off$from$the$supportive$communities$and$particular$cultural$traditions$that$had$formerly$constituted$their$corporate$identities$and$solidarities$as$Syrians,$Judeans,$Italians,$or$Greeks.$As(freedpeople(and(urban(poor(isolated(from(any(horizontal(supportive(social(network,(they(were(either(already(part(of(or(readily(vulnerable(for(recruitment(into(the(lower(layers(of(patronage(pyramids(extending$downwards$into$

the$social$hierarchy$as$the$power$bases$of$those$clambering$for$high$honor$and$office$expanded.$

Coin of the British Museum (1857, 1221.20).

A%napoleonic%coin%claiming%the%Bourbon%Isles%(later%Réunion)%for%“France%et%Bonaparte”.%Note%the%laurel%wreath%on%the%reverse%and%the%Napoleonic%eagle,%evocative%of%and%based%on%the%Roman%eagles.%

46 |

Paul’s Imperial Language as a Positive

 Wright,$N.$T.$"Paul$and$Empire."$In$The$Wiley;Blackwell$Companion$to$Paul,$edited$by$Stephen$Westerholm,$285;298.$Malden,$MA;$Oxford:$Wiley;Blackwell,$2011,$292.$

 Often,$in$fact,$such$allusions$[to$“the$structures$of$power$and$those$who$embodied$and$enforced$them”]$are$the(only(way,(or(perhaps(the(best(way,(to(get(the(point(across.$But$in$the$case$of$Paul,$the(echoes(of(imperial(language((not$necessarily$explicitly$“cultic”$language,$though$as$we$have$seen$the$cult$merges$into,$and$flows$out$from,$the$wider$ideology)$are(strong:(“good(news,”(“son(of(God,”((universal(allegiance,(Jesus(as(part(of(an(ancient(royal(family(and(as(kyrios((“lord”),$and$then,$in$what$is$generally$reckoned$the$thematic$statement$of$the$letter$[to$the$Romans]$(1:16;17),$this$“good$news”$as$being$the$means$of$“salvation”$and$“justice”$(dikaiosynē,$“righteousness”).$The(fact(that(these(notions(have(been(given(very(different(and(essentionally(non`political,(meanings(in(some(Christian(theology(ought(not(to(make(us(deaf(to(the(echoes(they(would(almost(certainly(have(awakened(in(Rome.(

47 |

Paul’s Imperial Language as a Positive

 Horsley,$“1$Corinthians”,$250;251$

 In$his$explanation$of$why$he$did$not$accept$[financial]$support,$he$simply$resorted$to(the(imagery(of(household(administration((“commission,”$9:17),$with$the(implied(image(of(God(as(the(divine(estate(owner(and(himself(as(the(steward.$Such$imagery$fits$with$similar(controlling(metaphors,$such$as$God(as(a(monarch,(Christ(as(the(alternative(emperor,(and(himself(as(the(Lord’s(“servant”(or(“slave”.$He$used(his(overall(controlling(vision(of$the$“kingdom”$of$God$as(a(basis(for(rejecting(the(patronage(system,$but$remained$within$that$traditional$biblical$vision.$

48 |

Imperial Language Used as a Positive

 Wright,$N.$T.$Paul:$Fresh%Perspectives.%London:$SPCK,$2005,$69$

 For$Paul,$Jesus$is$Lord$and$Caesar$is$not…$if$Jesus$is$Israel’s$Messiah$then$he$is$the$world’s(true(Lord.$

 Wright,$N.$T.$Paul:%Fresh%Perspectives.$London:$SPCK,$2005,$75$

 In$1$Corinthians$15,$Paul$describes$the(resurrection$of$Jesus$as$inaugurating(that(period(of(history$which$is$characterized$by$the(sovereign(rule(of(Jesus$which$will$end$with$the(destruction(of(all(enemies,(putting(all(things(under(his(feet.$%

Washington,%D.C.%The%Capital%Columns%(1985)%

49 |

Imperial Language Used as a Positive

 Wright,$N.$T.$"Paul$and$Empire”,$289.$

 When$we$consider$“Paul$and$Empire”,$we(are(not(talking(about(a(political(slideshow,$a$subcategory$of$“Pauline$ethics”$(“What$about$the$State?”).$We(are(talking(about(the(kingdom(of(God(and(the(lordship(of(Jesus(the(Messiah.$

 Wright,$N.$T.$"Paul$and$Empire”,$290.$

 Paul’s$gospel,$arguably,$remained$firmly$rooted$in$the$soil$of$ancient$Jewish$expectation.$He$believed$that$in$Jesus,$and$particularly$in$his$death$and$resurrection,$Israel’s$god$had$been$true$to$his$promises.$It(was(therefore$time(for(the(world(to(be(brought(under(the(lordship(of(this(god(and(his(anointed(king.(

Silver%medal%(1783)%of%American%Liberty.%Here%she%appears%with%flowing%hair%and%her%pileus,%the%hat%of%a%freed%slave,%on%a%pole.%On%the%reverse,%Artemis%with%the%fleurAdeAlis%of%France%shields%the%infant%Hercules%%(the%US)%from%the%lion%of%the%British%monarchy%as%he%strangles%two%snakes%representing%British%forces%at%Saratoga%and%Yorktown.%The%legend%reads,%“non$sine$diis$animosus$infans”,%a%quote%from%Horace.%“The%infant%is%not%bold%without%(the%help%of%)%the%gods”.%%

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Education

Rome and Paul in British Imperial Ideology