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Research of the dayDrinking 1-2 alcoholic drinks per day has been found to decrease the chance of depression (but drinking more increases it).Almeida, O. P., et al. "The triangular association of ADH1B genetic polymorphism, alcohol consumption and the risk of depression in older men." Molecular Psychiatry (2013).
Being exposed to phobic stimuli while asleep reduces phobia when awake.Hauner, Katherina K., et al. "Stimulus-specific enhancement of fear extinction during slow-wave sleep." Nature Neuroscience (2013).
Homework ReviewHypothesis:“Subjects exposed to violent video games are more likely to behave violently in real life.”
What is your view on this?
Find evidence to support it.
Recap●Research gives us justification for our beliefs●It is not just a process of gathering
information●Research must be approached critically●To research you need:
○A topic○A hypothesis○Research questions○Reasonable scope
Research2. Skepticism
This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License. To view a copy of this license, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/.
by Helena Hollis, 2014
ValiditySomething is valid if it is well-grounded, supported, justified, consistent. (Remember Justified True Belief (Ichikawa and Steup, 2013))
You can have valid●Sources●Arguments●Conclusions●Logic
etc.
Assessing ValidityIt is crucial to think about the validity of what we are presented with in everyday life. Even more so when we do research.
Remember:1. Research is not mere information gathering. (Leady and Ormrod, 2010, pp 1-2)
Research must involve addressing the validity of what we find.
Skepticism helps judge validityApproach information with skeptical questions in mind. If the information withstands skeptical questioning, then you are justified in believing it.
Relying upon information which you have not assessed for validity will lead to poor quality, unjustified work.
Descartes“But how could I... withal escape being classed with persons in a state of insanity, whose brains are so disordered and clouded by dark bilious vapors as to cause them pertinaciously to assert that they are monarchs when they are in the greatest poverty; or clothed [in gold] and purple when destitute of any covering; or that their head is made of clay, their body of glass, or that they are gourds?”(Descartes, 1641)
Validity of sourcesThe first thing to think about when addressing the validity of your research are your sources.
Always consider:1) Editorial or Review processes: has this source been looked at by editors, fact-checkers, peer reviewers etc. before publication?
This is why wikipedia is not a valid source.
...2) Replication: is there just one source out there making these claims, or is there some consensus?
3) Common Sense. Think about things slowly, mull them over, and consider the likelihood that the source is valid or not.
Some bad sources1) Wikipedia. People can (and do) put false information on wiki. Have a look at this list of known wiki hoaxes: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:List_of_hoaxes_on_Wikipedia
2) Quote websites. These often contain quotes attributed to the wrong people, or misquotes.
3) Blogs, web pages with single or unspecified authors, forums, etc.
Misquotes“Be the change you wish to see in the world.” Ghandi
“I’ve never wished a man dead, but I have read some obituaries with great pleasure.” Mark Twain
“I mourn the loss of thousands of precious lives, but I will not rejoice in the death of one, not even an enemy.” Martin Luther King
“Do not be so open minded that your brains fall out.” Carl Sagan
(http://quoteinvestigator.com/)
Some good sources●Books
●Academic journals- See library catalogue- Search using Google Scholar, DOAJ or other journal searches
●Websites of reputable organisations
Validity of claimsWithin a given source, various claims may be made.
As a researcher, you will need to identify them, and think about what reason has been given to believe or disbelieve them.
Assessing claims1. How reliable is the source of the claim?2. Does the source make similar claims?3. Have the claims been verified by somebody else?4. Does this fit with the way the world works?5. Has anyone tried to disprove the claim?6. Where does the preponderance of evidence point?7. Is the claimant playing by the rules of science?8. Is the claimant providing positive evidence?9. Does the new theory account for as many phenomena as the old theory?10. Are personal beliefs driving the claim?
(Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science, 2009)
TheoriesA theory is a set of ideas intended to explain something.
In research, a theory may back up your hypothesis, or oppose it.
Much like assessing claims, the same kind of criteria should be applied when assessing theories.
Just a theoryMuch of what we understand about the universe is in the form of theory. It is not referred to as fact because often finding absolute, incontrovertible evidence for it simply is not possible, or at least not yet.
This does not mean that all theories are equal. Some are (radically) more likely to be true than others.
...
image: http://www.smbc-comics.com/?id=2853
Occam’s RazorAlso known as the principle of simplicity, or parsimony.
“other things being equal, simpler theories are better.”
(Baker, 2013)
HoroscopesI am going to hand out horoscopes to each of you, based on your star sign.
Your star sign
http://www.psychicguild.com/horoscopes_explained.php
Your HoroscopeThese are 1 week old.
How accurately does your horoscope describe your last week?
Confirmation Bias
This is “a tendency for people to favor information that confirms their preconceptions or hypotheses regardless of whether the information is true” (princeton.edu, n.d)
This means paying more attention to (and often remember more) those things which prove a hypothesis, while disregarding those that disprove it.
Beware the biasWhen doing research, it is very easy to fall into the confirmation bias.
This means searching for sources which support your ideas. Making notes of all the things you find in support of your ideas. Interviewing people you know to be supporters of your ideas.
Doing this without also paying attention to the opposing viewpoints is confirmation bias. You must also read, make notes on, and give a voice to, opponents of your ideas.
Subjective vs ObjectiveSome areas of research aim towards objective knowledge and fact.
However, that is not the only form of valid research.
Subjective fields, to do with interpretation, analysis, and opinion can also be valid.
...
Image: http://xkcd.com/451/
Subjective validityIf you are researching and writing about a more subjective area, where there may not be any hard answers, you still need to think about validity.
You need to support your ideas with theoretical frameworks. You must also find valid sources who support your views.
Caution with emotional subjectsSome subjective fields, particularly those to do with social issues, can be emotionally charged.
You may have very strong viewpoints.
This is not a bad thing - passion makes your work better - but you must constantly think about the support you are giving your opinions.
...
Citing sourcesIn order to demonstrate the validity of your research, you must state your sources.
Similarly, when you are reading, check to see if the author has stated his sources.
At the back of academic texts you will find a reference list, which can be a treasure trove of ongoing research material.
Citation and ReferencingOnce you decide you want to use a source, you must reference it correctly. This involves:
1) In-text citation - always 2) Reference list - always 3) Bibliography - required for some projects.
In-text CitationsThese are brackets placed after information has been used, indicating which source it came from.
If using Harvard Referencing this will be the author’s surname, year of publication, and a page number:(Smith, 2012, p. 34) or (Jones, 1987, pp. 50-62)
...In some cases, it may be the name of a website, and there may not be any publication date, or page numbering:
(BBC, no date)
Try to use common sense. Take whatever information available in the source, and make a citation which singles it out in your reference list.
Who to citeIt is always best to cite the original source, even if you found the information via someone else.
You can cite a source inside a source like this:(Shakespeare, cited in Smith, 2012, p. 34)
But this a lazy thing to do, unless you absolutely cannot find the original.
… not citing is plagiarism.Edison, and Marconi, should’ve cited Tesla for his ideas.
Image: http://www.harkavagrant.com/index.php?id=256
When to cite?Always cite:
●Quotations●Paraphrased information (where you have put it
in your own words, but the information is from a source you read)
●Factual information that is non-trivial●Figures, statistics, etc.
If in doubt, it is better to cite too much than too little.
Example of citationThe brain exhibits ‘small world network’ properties (Liu et al 2008), meaning that the topology is such that there are areas of dense connectivity where each node is connected to every other neighbouring node, but these are then also connected with one another (see fig. 2). This structure is important, as Liu et al write: “Small-world networks offer a structural substrate for functional segregation and integration of theBrain... and facilitate rapid adaptive reconfiguration of neuronal assemblies in support of changing cognitive states” (Liu et al, 2008, p.945)However it is important to note that this is not the kind of structure typically assumed in neuropsychological models, in that it is not modular in the strong sense. The small world network organisation also fits in with the idea of ‘multiple constraint organisation’, meaning that each component of the system falls under the constraint of all other components in the system (Rubinov et al, 2009, p.413).
Fig. 2: Visualisation of a small world network:
(Wassal, 2009)
Reference List This is a list of all the sources you have used in your essay. It belongs at the end. It should be in alphabetical order (by author’s surname).
A full set of information on the source should be given here, to make it as easy as possible for the reader to locate it should they wish to.
See referencing guides for exact details.
Example reference listAdler, M. and Van Doren, C. (1940) How to Read a Book. New York: Touchstone
Booth, W., Colomb, G., and Williams, J., (2008) The Craft of Research. 3rd edn. London: The University of Chicago Press.
Ichikawa, J. and Steup, M. (2013) "The Analysis of Knowledge", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2013 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Available at:http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/knowledge-analysis/ (Accessed: 23rd September 2013).
Leady, P. and Ormrod, J. (2010) Practical Research Planning and Design, 9th edn. Boston MA : Pearson Education
OptionGradius (2011) Insane Clown Posse - Miracle ( With Lyrics ). Available at: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IiZR6YbhXgE (Accessed : 23rd September 2013).
Oxford Dictionary (2011) Available at: http://oxforddictionaries.com/view/entry/m_en_gb0703100#m_en_gb0703100 (Accessed: 8 May 2011)
Piaget, J. (1970). The principles of genetic epistemology. London: Routledge.
RiverheadBooks (2010) WHERE GOOD IDEAS COME FROM by Steven Johnson. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NugRZGDbPFU (Accessed : 23rd September 2013).
Wilson, E. B. (1952) An Introduction to Scientific Research. New York: Dover Publications
BibliographyThis is only a requirement for some work, always check guidelines.
It is a reference list, which also includes all the sources you used as part of your research, even if you never directly cited them in your essay.
(A reference list contains sources that have been directly cited in the essay only)
HomeworkPlease read Jonathan Swift’s A Modest Proposal by tomorrow.
(If you have read it in the past, please re-read it to refresh your memory)
The full text is available for free online at Project Gutenberg: http://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/1080
A Modest ProposalI strongly suggest you make notes as you read.
● Summarise his argument● Summarise what you think his opinion is● Summarise any counter-arguments or problems he
addresses in the text.
The aim of this exercise is to deconstruct Jonathan Swift’s argument, so that we can evaluate it.
ReferencesBaker, Alan, "Simplicity", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2013 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Available at: http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/simplicity. (Accessed : 24th September 2013)
darthrender (2007) James Randi debunks Uri Geller. Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JXv3TvB4LNI (Accessed : 23rd September 2013)
Descartes, R. (1641) Meditations on First Philosophy. Available at: http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/descartes/meditations/Meditation1.html (Accessed: 13th September 2014)
Graham, CD. 1957. A glossary for research reports. Metal Progress 71: 75
Ichikawa, J. and Steup, M. (2013) "The Analysis of Knowledge", The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy (Fall 2013 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.), Available at:http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/fall2013/entries/knowledge-analysis/ (Accessed: 23rd September 2013).
princeton.edu (No Date) Confirmation Bias. Available at: http://www.princeton.edu/~achaney/tmve/wiki100k/docs/Confirmation_bias.html (Accessed : 24th September 2013)
Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science (2009) Michael Shermer: Baloney Detection Kit. Available at: http://youtu.be/eUB4j0n2UDU (Accessed : 23rd September 2013)
socialpsychology.org (No Date) The Famous Four Card Task. Available at: http://www.socialpsychology.org/teach/wason.htm (Accessed : 24th September 2013)
toadpecker (2009) Tim minchin americans survey evolution info! Available at: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H9uIMR8yCPg (Accessed : 24th September 2013)
