2. Research is considered as the systematic effort made to
explore new areas of knowledge It requires a planning. Testing of
validity and reliability are the major emphasis in research hence a
systematic plan is very essential in research. Research designing
is considered as the beginning phase of research
3. Research involves two major stages one is the stage of
planning and other is the stage of execution. In the first stage
researchers construct a design and in the second they collect data
and analyses the data.
4. Meaning Design means drawing an outline, planning or
arranging details. It is process of making decisions before the
situations arises in which the decisions have to be carried out. It
is the planning of strategy to conduct the research
5. Design explains how the researcher intends to conduct the
study. Especially it discuss about what is to be observed, how is
to be observed, how to record the observation, analyze, interpret
and generalize. So we can say it as the detailed plan about the
goals of the research and its achievement.
6. Definitions William zikmund(1988) defined research as master
plan specifying the methods and procedures for collecting and
analyzing the needed information Martin(1974) Research design is
the specification of the problem, conceptual definitions,
derivation of hypothesis to test and defining of population to be
studied.Ackoff Russell said planning various phases and procedures
relating to the formulation of research efforts
7. There are many forms of design. Some focuses on the process
of data collection only( Dickmen 1995) while others extend their
boundaries to cover data analysis (Ragin 1994)
8. Steps in Research Design Sampling procedures Where When,
who( subjcets) Methodological construction of the Topic How will
the reserch topic be adressed in the study Topic and methodology
What is the rsearch Topic andWhich methodology Reporting The method
of communcating the findings Data anlysis & intrepretation How
(processing)What way it will be anysed Data collection Where &
How the data will be gathered
9. Types of research design The type of methodology adopted by
any research depends upon the central research objective and
questions (Crabtree & Miller, 1999; Denzin & Lincoln,
2000). A large number of research methodologies have been
identified, Galliers (1991) for example listing fourteen, while
Alavi and Carlson (1992), reported in Pervan (1994), use a
hierarchical taxonomy with three levels and eighteen
categories.
10. Taxonomy Scientific/Positivist Laboratory Experiments Field
Experiments Surveys Case Studies Theorem Proof Forecasting
Simulation Interpretivist/Anti- positivist Subjective/Argumentativ
e Reviews Action Research Case Studies Descriptive/ Interpretive
Futures Research Role /Game Playing
11. Purposes of Research design The purpose of the design
depends up on the nature and purposes of the study. the type of
population, reseracher experience, ideological background of the
researcher . etc.
12. It provides a Blue print While conducting a research
researcher faces many problems, what sample size, what type of data
collection method want to follow, are some of challenges in front
of the reseracher. It such contexts the research design act as blue
print to visualize the study. It limits boundaries of research
activities A systematic procedure will be developed in research
design, it give clear idea about the hypothesis, data size , data
collections etc. It enables investigation to anticipate potential
problem ( . Continues
13. .continuation Through the literature review in research
most of the problem will be faced by the researcher in analyzing
the data and the nature of data will be cleared so it avoid certain
kind of errors in research. Offers a guide that directs the
research action and help to rationalize the use of time and
resources and to reduce costs. Helps to introduce a systematic
approach to the research operation Entails openness and
accountability Makes replication easier and more effective Enables
accurate estimation of the whole research activity
14. The type of methodology adopted by any research depends
upon the central research objective and questions (Crabtree &
Miller, 1999; Denzin & Lincoln, 2000). A large number of
research methodologies have been identified, Galliers (1991) for
example listing fourteen, while Alavi and Carlson (1992), reported
in Pervan (1994), use a hierarchical taxonomy with three levels and
eighteen categories.
15. Qualitative research Qualitative research is an inquiry
process of understanding based on distinct and methodological
traditions of inquiry that explore a social or a human
problem.
16. The researcher builds a complex, holistic picture, analyzes
words, reports detailed views of informants and conducts the study
in a natural setting. To understand the processes or the how and
why of a given phenomenon qualitative research provides the
necessary in-depth analysis. In qualitative research the
qualitative data is collected by the researcher and analyzed using
one of the qualitative data analysis methods. Qualitative data are
in depth descriptions of circumstances, people, interactions,
observed behaviors, events, attitudes, thoughts and beliefs and
direct quotes from people who have experienced or are experiencing
the phenomenon
17. Fixed qualitative Design It employs relatively a structured
approach, resembling the quantitative model. This model is employed
when reseracher has a clear idea about the nature of the research
topic and is interested in the way which people respond to it.
18. Flexible qualitative Design It is the more common method in
qualitative research design. It contains six major steps. It is
constructed before the research commence. It presented in a general
and non-specific manner allowing interpretation, leaving space for
further discussion Allows freedom of unlimited movement data
collection and data analysis. It is not based on objectivity.
19. Quantitative Research This research employs quantitative
and statistical analysis. It is based methodological principles of
positivism and adheres to the standard of strict sampling and
research design. A well defined structure will be followed in
quantitative research. In this design the research will be
progressed based on the sequence of structured steps.
20. Descriptive Research The research efforts developed to
describes the social situations, social events , social systems ,
structure of the society are based on descriptive research design
Descriptive studies, as name suggests, describe as accurately as
possible the characteristics of a group of people or a
community.
21. A researcher who is interested in studying people of a
community, their age and sex composition, caste wise distribution,
affiliation to religion, level of education, occupational status,
designs his study as descriptive study. Researcher may formulate a
descriptive design of study to know the proportion of people in a
particular population who favors' dowry or who feels that child
labour should be banned.
22. Still others may be concerned with specific prediction. For
example, what percentage of population would enter voters list in
the next census operations? What will be the size of the
handicapped population who will need financial assistance in the
next five-year plan? And so on.
23. Here the reseracher observes, studies and describe what
he/she found. Eg. Drug abuse among college students, increasing
political participation of Women, Census studies. Generally in
descriptive research the data are collected in a single situation
pertaining to single time period. This is called single subject or
single cell design. (Diagrams)
24. Exploratory research Exploratory or causal research is
mainly concerned with causes or why factor about certain phenomena.
In this type of research the researcher studies a subject which is
not familiar to the area of knowledge.ie. Either no information or
little information is available
25. In this research the researcher is unfamiliar with the
group and the subject which he /she is going to study. Exploratory
studies are suitable in studying certain phenomena like deficiency
in educational system, corruption among political elite, harassment
by police, rural poverty etc the hypothesis in an exploratory
studies is related with expressing relationship between two or more
variables. How A affects B that will be the content of
hypothesis.
26. Experimental research In the study the researcher studies
the effect through comparison with experiment and without
experiment It is design in which some of the variables being
studied are manipulated
27. In these studies the reseraher seek to control conditions
in order to observe the person or subjects and to reach in
conclusions Here control means holding one factor constant while
others are free to vary in the experiment. One variable independent
is manipulated and its affect upon another variable (dependant) is
measured.
28. . In this design the study contains two groups one is
controlled group (not exposed to experiment) and other is
experimental group (undergone through experiment).
29. Example Eg: Teacher lecture on strike and students
attitudinal changes G1 not exposed to the session G2- exposed to
the session
30. Terms used in experimental design Experimental treatment,
Test units, extraneous variable, randomization of sample, repeated
measures, demand characteristics.
31. Evaluation research A common research usually conducted by
sociologist, economist, government officials, social workers with a
purpose to assess the existing policies, programmes, and evaluate
the utilization of funds etc. main intention of this type of study
is
32. To discover gap in services To investigate the alternative
to meet the unmet needs To predict the success of the planned
programme Analyze the cost effectiveness
33. Types Feasibility studies need analysis studies, process
analysis, impact analysis & cost analysis.
34. Action research The origins of action research, and the
ways in which action research is both perceived and conducted
today, are open to dispute, yet it "has been a distinctive form of
inquiry since the 1940s" (Elden and Chisholm, 1993) The term
'action research' is popularly attributed to Kurt Lewin
(1946),
35. Elden and Chisholm (1993) go on to note that action
research is change oriented, seeking to introduce changes with
positive social values, the key focus of the practice being on a
problem and its solution Palmer and Jacobson (1971) see action
research as a means of using research to promote social action.
Further to these descriptions, Rapoport (1970) identifies action
research as a form of inquiry that seeks to address both the
practical problems of people and the goals of social science within
a "mutually acceptable ethical framework" (Susman, 1985).
36. Action research can be described as a family of research
methodologies which pursue action (or change) and research (or
understanding) at the same time. Here in this method the procedures
and steps are same like any other research process but the role of
respondent and the manner in which the data are to be collected is
different
37. the action in the action research is situational( solving
the issue in a given situation ) collaborative (efforts of
researcher and practitioners)participatory(researcher role is
crucial) and self evaluative ( constant evaluation )
38. Is educative Deals with individuals as members of social
groups Is problem-focused, context-specific and future- orientated
Involves a change intervention Involves a cyclic process in which
research, action and evaluation are interlinked Aims at improvement
and involvement Eg: Marad case
39. Sample A sample is a portion drawn from a larger population
.it will be representative of the population only if it has same
basic characteristics of the population from which it is drawn. In
sampling in research our concern o is not about types of units
(person) to be observed. But with how many units of what
description and by what methods should be chosen.(Straits
1999)
40. Manheim(1977) a sample is a part of the population which is
studied in order to make inferences about the whole population.
sampling is a process of systematically selecting cases for
inclusion in a research project
41. Sampling The common question asked in any research is
always about the data collection and related procedures. Especially
while conducting a survey in research to collect the data whether
they want to collect data from the entire population? Or from a
representative portion? , are common questions. Sampling is power
technique applied with wide application in social science
research.
42. Population refers all those people with the characteristics
which the reseracher wants to study within the context of a
particular problem it could be all students in a college, patients
in a hospital, prisoners in prison, employees in a state, o
particular group of people from a state and so on
43. Propose of Sampling Studying a large population demands
more resources and its mobilization. Time, scattered population,
wide geographical area are often make sample as necessary in
research.(Sarantakos 1998) Samples is suitable in scattered
population , It offers high degree of accuracy because it deals
with a small number of people. Time saving Sampling is
economical
44. Principles of sampling (Sarntakos 1998) Sample units must
be chosen in a systematic and objective manner Sample units must be
clearly defined and easily identifiable Sample units must be
independent of each other. Same units of sample should be used
throughout the study In the selection process of sample, errors,
bias should be avoided and a sound criterion should be
followed.
45. Advantages Reduce the number of larger population It saves
time and money It saves destruction of units It increases accuracy
of data It achieves greater response rate It is easy to
supervise
46. Universe or population The sum total of all units / cases
that conform to some designated set of specification is called the
universe or population. Sample it is aportion of the total
population formula ____n______ 1+ n(e)2 Here n= total number,e =
0.59(confidence level)
47. Sampling element.- each entity from the population about
which a information is collected is called sample element Sampling
Unit this is either a single member (element) or collection of
members (elements) subject to data analysis in the sample.
48. Sampling frame It is the complete list of all units from
which the sample is drawn. Electoral roll, the list of patients in
a hospital, students in college etc. if we want to study 2200 women
in a village out of the age group 18-50 year is 970. These 18-50
yrs would be the sampling frame.
49. Target population-it is one to which the reseracher would
like to generalize his results. In the above mentioned example of
awareness rights of women in the rural area the target population
is 970.
50. Sampling Traits- it is the element on the basis of which we
take out the sample from the total universe. It could be the
attribute or variable( qualitative/ quantitative).rural area, age ,
gender, residence
51. Sampling fraction-it is proportion of the total population
to be included in the sample. In the above mentioned example the
total women in the village is 2200, of whom 283(300) women are to
be studied. The sampling fraction thus comes to one seventh of
population.
52. Parameters Characteristics of population is called
parameters, it is the summary description of a variable for a
population. Sampling error- it is the difference between total
population value and the sampling value, it is the degree to which
the sample characteristics approximate the characteristics of the
total population .
53. Types of sampling Probability sampling Non-Probability
Sampling Simple random Sampling- Convenience Sampling Stratified
Sampling Purposive Sampling Systematic sampling Quota sampling
Cluster sampling Snowball sampling Multi Stage sampling Volunteer
sampling Multi Phase Sampling