In the name of Allah Kareem,Most Beneficent, Most Gracious, the Most Merciful !

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Quantitative ResearchQuantitative research is "a formal, objective, systematic process in which numerical data are utilised to obtain information about the world" (Burns and Grove cited by Cormack 1991). Quantitative research is inclined to be deductive. In other words it tests theory.

General aims of quantitative research

• To generalize • To be objective• To test theories

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1. Theory

3. Research Design

4. Devise measures of concepts

2. Hypothesis

5. Select research site / Respondents

6. Data Collection

7. Preparation of data

10. Report Writing

9. Drawing Conclusions

8. Analysis and interpretations

Quantitative Research Process

PURPOSE OF THEORY 1.Prediction

2.Understanding

LEVELS OF THEORY3. Abstract level4. Empirical level

PROCESS OF THEORY DEVELOPMENT1. Induction2. Deduction

1. THEORYTheory is a standardized principle on which basis we can explain the relationship between two or more concepts or

variables.

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2. Hypothesis / Research Questions

A predictive statement of a relationship between two or more variable, which may then be tested through research

TYPES OF HYPOTHESIS

1. Null Hypothesis Ho

2. Alternative Hypothesis H1

A good hypothesis should be:

A definite statementBased on observations and knowledgePredict the results very clearTestable with straight forward experiment

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3. Research Design

1. Introduction2. Purpose Statement3. Significance4. Objectives5. Use of theory6. Research Questions/Hypotheses7. Limitations Delimitations8. Ethical Consideration

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4. Devise Measure of ConceptsConcept:

Abstract realities or generalized ideas about objects, attributes, occurrence or

processes, that can not be measured directly. Concepts are the building blocks of theory.

Examples level of motivation

Variable

Empirical realities that may have varied (different) values that can be measured directly is called variables

Example: Gender (male or female)Temperature ( 98o , 95o , 100o ) etc

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Operationalization is the process of defining a concept so that it becomes measurable variable, which is achieved by looking at behavioral dimensions and categorizing them into observable and measurable elements.

Operationalization

Cont…..

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Cont…..

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Gender1. Male2. Female

Motivation1. Highly Motivated2. Moderately Motivated3. Less Motivated

Temperature1. 97 C2. 98 C3. 99 C

Time1. 10 seconds

Means 10 seconds more than 0

ooo

Cont…..

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Scale Definition Properties Base Example

Nominal scale

A scale in which objects or individual is broken into categories that have no numerical properties.

Identity Difference

• Gender

• Nationality

• Religion

Ordinal Scale

A scale in which objects or individuals are categorized and the categories form a rank order along a continuum.

Directional Order A is longer than B

Comparison Chart

Scale Definition Properties Base Example

Interval Scale

A scale in which the units of measurement (intervals) between the numbers on the scale are all equal.

Equal unit

SizeMagnitude A is 2 feet longer than B

Ratio ScaleA scale in which, in addition to order and equal units of measurement, there is an absolute zero that indicates an absence of the variables being measure.

Ratio Absolute zeroA is 2 feet long means 2 feet more

than “0”

Cont…..

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Binary Response formats

Numerical Response formats

Verbal formats

Bipolar numerical formats

Frequency formats

Response formats for scalesMy job is usually interesting enough to keep me from getting bored

• agree• disagree

My job is usually interesting enough to keep me for getting bored5 4 3 2 1

May job is usually interesting enough to keep me from getting boredStrongly agree__ agree__ undecided__ disagree___ strongly disagree__

I love my job 5 4 3 2 1I hate my job

My job is usually interesting enough to keep me from getting bored• All of the time ____ • often _____ • fairly often ____ • occasionally ___ • none of the time ____

Cont…..

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Face Validity

(Validity where measure apparently reflects the content of the concept in

question)

Predictive

(Researcher employs the criterion whereby a new scale predicts a future

event)

Validity(Are we Measuring the

Right thing)

Convergent

(A test has convergent validity if it has a high correlation with another test that measures the same construct)

Concurrent

(Researcher employs the criterion whereby a new scale measures a

current event)

Validity Cont…..

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Reliability

(Accuracy in

Measurement)

Test-retest reliability

Inter-item consistency

Split- half reliability

Parallel-form reliability

Cont…..Reliability

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· Populationthe universe of units(nations, cities, regions, firms, students

employees etc.) from which the sample is to be selected. · Sample

the segment of the population that is selected for the investigation. It is a subset of the population. The method of selection may be based on a probability or a non-probability approach (see below).

· Sampling framethe listing of all the units in the population from which the

sample will be selected.· Representative Sample

a sample that reflects the population accurately so that it is a microcosm of the population.

· Sampling errorthe difference between a sample and the population from

which it is selected, even though a probability sample has been selected.

5.Selecting Research respondents

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Sampling

Sampling Technique

Probability

Non-Probability

Simple random sample

Systematic sample

Stratified random sample

Convenience sampling

Snowball sampling

Quota sampling

5.Cont…..

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Methods of Data CollectionSurveys

Survey is a quantitative research strategy that involves the structured collection of data from a pre-determined sample. It involves following methods

1.Structured interview2.Structured Observation3.Questionnaire

Survey

QuestionnaireStructured Interview

On-line questionnaires

Postal questionnaires

Self administered questionnairesTelephone

InterviewsFace to face

interview

Structured Observation

Participant Observation

Non -Participant Observation

Structured Interviewing

Structured interviewing is the process of administering an interview schedule by an interviewer.

The aim is for all interviewees to be given exactly the same context of questioning. In this way the interviewers are supposed to read questions exactly.Types of Structured interviewing

1. Telephonic Interview2. Face to face Interview

Structured Observations “It is a purposeful, systematic and selective way of watching and

listening to an interaction or phenomenon as it takes place”.Observation is suitable when Researcher is more interested in the behavior rather in the perceptions of individuals, When the subjects are so involved in the interaction that they are unable to provide objective information about it.Types of Observations

1. Participant observation2. Non participant observation

QUESTIONNAIRES

“Questionnaire is pre-formulated written set of questions to which respondents record their answers”.

Questionnaires can be:

On-line questionnaires Postal questionnaires Self administered

questionnaire

Variety of factors influence questionnaire

The choice of questionnaire will be influenced by a variety of factors related to your

Research question (s) Research objective Characteristics of respondents Size of sample Dimensions of the concept to be measured And availability of required resources.

DESIGNING A QUESTIONNAIRE

Designing a questionnaire is based on following principles1- Principle of wording

i. The nature of the variable will determine what kind and number of questions will be asked i.e. ranking, rating or dichotomous

ii. The wording should be simple, easy and appropriate

iii. Closed ended questions will be used with the intention to have ease, and enhanced comparability.

iv. Add both positively as well as negatively worded questions

v. Always avoid double barreled, ambiguous, recall dependent, leading or loaded questions

vi. The sequence of questions in the questionnaire should be from general to specific, and easy to more difficult. It is also called funnel approach.

2- Principle of Measurement:i. Interval and Ratio scales should be used in preference to nominal or

ordinal scales

ii. The measure must be assessed through tests of validity and reliability

3- General Getup:1. Start with good Introduction

2. Questions should be well organized with instructions and guidance

3. Only relevant personal information should be demanded that is not sensitive,

4. End with a courteous note.

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Mode of data

Description Advantages Disadvantages

Personal or face-to-face interviews

The interviewer and interviewee confronted each other

Can establish rapport and motivate respondentsCan clarify the questions, clear doubts add new questionsCan read nonverbal cuesCan use visual aids to clarify points.Rich data can be obtainedCAPI can be used and responses entered in a portable computer

Takes personal timeCosts more when a wide geographic region is coveredRespondents may be concerned about confidentiality of information given Interviewers need to be trained‘can introduce interviewer biasesRespondents can terminate the interview any time

Telephone Interviews

Interview which were conducted through communication.

Less costly and speedier that personal interviews.Can reach a wide geographic areaGreater anonymity than personal interviews.

Nonverbal cues cannot be readInterviews will have to be kept short Obsolete telephone number could be contacted, and unlisted ones omitted from the sample

Self-completion questionnaire

Self-questionnaire is a questionnaire in which interviewee answer the question by himself

Can establish rapport and motivate respondentDoubts can be clarifiedLess expensive when administered to groupsAlmost 100 % response rate ensuredAnonymity of respondent is high

Organizations may be reluctant to give up company time for the survey with group of employees assembled for the purpose

Postal Questionnaire

It is a type of questionnaire which can be sending to the respondent through mail or any other postal mode.

Anonymity is highWide geographic regions can be reached.Token gifts can be enclosed to seek complianceRespondent can take more time to respond at convenienceCan be administered electronically, if desired

Response rate is almost always Cannot clarify questionsFollow-up procedures for no responses are necessary

Electronic Questionnaire

The questionnaire which you send through internet

Easy to administerCan reach globallyVery inexpensive Fast deliveryConvenient for Respondents

Computer literacy in a must Respondents must have access to the facilityRespondent must be willing to complete the survey

Participants Observation

Researcher participates in the activities of the group being observed in the same manner

Better accuracyLess costResearcher is collecting observed data not reported dataCan obtain data from those unable to communicate in written or oral form

Participant observation takes time and commitmentUsually does not examine motivation, attitude or feeling toward particular behaviorTime cost

Non-Participants Observation

Researcher do not get involved in the activities of the group but remains a passive observer

The individual may simply be unaware of how they behave in a particular situation.Safe the researcher time

The lack of interaction may, however make it difficult for the researcher to be able to clarify or interrupt the phenomena been investigatedDifficulty in data storing

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Mystery shopping is a popular technique used in consumer research that involves sending people (mystery shoppers) into a shop to buy products with the intention to evaluate the effectiveness of retail staff. After the interaction, the shoppers typically fill out rating sheet detailing the nature of the interaction and service they receive. It’s a type of field stimulation.

Mystery Shopping

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