Research Research MethodologyMethodology

Quantitative ResearchQuantitative Research

The Section covers the The Section covers the following areasfollowing areas

Overview of the Research Process:-Overview of the Research Process:- Formulating a Research ProblemFormulating a Research Problem Identifying variablesIdentifying variables Constructing HypothesesConstructing Hypotheses The Research designThe Research design Selecting a method of data collectionSelecting a method of data collection Collecting data using attitudinal scalesCollecting data using attitudinal scales Establish the validity & reliability of a Establish the validity & reliability of a

Research instrumentResearch instrument

Formulating a Research Formulating a Research problem problem The first step in beginning a research project is to The first step in beginning a research project is to

decide “ What is the Research Question”?decide “ What is the Research Question”? A “Research Question” is a question about the A “Research Question” is a question about the

problem to be addressed , it is therefore focused on problem to be addressed , it is therefore focused on the content of the topic of interest.the content of the topic of interest.

First identifying & then specifying a research problem First identifying & then specifying a research problem might seem like research tasks that ought to b easy might seem like research tasks that ought to b easy & quality accomplished. However, such is often not & quality accomplished. However, such is often not the case (Yegidis & Weinback,1991,35)the case (Yegidis & Weinback,1991,35)

It is essential for the problem you formulate to b able It is essential for the problem you formulate to b able to withstand scrutiny in terms of the procedures to withstand scrutiny in terms of the procedures required to be undertaken.required to be undertaken.

Always researcher should send a considerable time in Always researcher should send a considerable time in thinking it through thinking it through

Researcher should always have a clear idea with Researcher should always have a clear idea with regard to what is that want to find out regard to what is that want to find out aboutabout & not & not what they think they much find what they think they much find

This is the most critical step in the ResearchThis is the most critical step in the Research

Sources of Research Sources of Research Problem Problem

If the Researcher has already selected If the Researcher has already selected the topic or question, next step is to the topic or question, next step is to identify the sources of Research identify the sources of Research Problem.Problem.

Most research in the humanities Most research in the humanities resolves around four “P”s resolves around four “P”s – People People - Study Population- Study Population

– ProblemsProblems– ProgramsPrograms– PhenomenaPhenomena

Subject Area

Every Research study has 2 aspects,Every Research study has 2 aspects,

1. The Study Population1. The Study Population

2.The Subject Area2.The Subject AreaAspects of a Aspects of a studystudy

AboutAbout Study of Study of

Study Study PopulationPopulation

PeoplePeople Individuals, Individuals, organizations, organizations, groups, groups, communitiescommunities

They provide They provide with rte with rte required required information or information or collect collect information information from or about from or about them them

Subject areaSubject area ProblemProblem Issues, Issues, Situations, Situations, Needs, Needs, Associations, Associations, Profiles etcProfiles etc

ProgramProgram Contents, Contents, Structure, Structure, outcomes, outcomes, attributes, attributes, satisfaction, satisfaction, consumersconsumers

Information that Information that need to collect need to collect to find answers to find answers to the research to the research questionquestion

PhenomenonPhenomenon

Cause and Cause and effect effect relationshipsrelationships

Considering in selecting a Considering in selecting a Research problemResearch problem

Interest – should be the most important Interest – should be the most important consideration in selecting a problemconsideration in selecting a problem

Magnitude – Having sufficient knowledge about the Magnitude – Having sufficient knowledge about the research processresearch process

Measurement of process- It the researcher is using Measurement of process- It the researcher is using a concept in th study should make sure to be very a concept in th study should make sure to be very clear about its indicators & measurements clear about its indicators & measurements

Level of Expertise – Having adequate level of Level of Expertise – Having adequate level of expertise for the task which is proposedexpertise for the task which is proposed

Relevance- Select a topic that is of relevance to as Relevance- Select a topic that is of relevance to as a professionala professional

Availability of data Availability of data Ethical Issues- Formulating a research problem is Ethical Issues- Formulating a research problem is

the Ethical issues involvedthe Ethical issues involved

Steps in the formulation of a Steps in the formulation of a Research ProblemResearch Problem

Step 1 – Identify a broad field or subjects are Step 1 – Identify a broad field or subjects are of interest to youof interest to you

Step 2-Dissect the broad are into a sub areasStep 2-Dissect the broad are into a sub areas Step 3 –Select what is of most interest to youStep 3 –Select what is of most interest to you Step 4-Raise research questionStep 4-Raise research question Step 5 –Formulate ObjectivesStep 5 –Formulate Objectives Step 6 – Assess your objectivesStep 6 – Assess your objectives Step 7- Double –checkStep 7- Double –check

The formulation of ObjectivesThe formulation of Objectives Objectives are the goals Researcher set out to attain in the Objectives are the goals Researcher set out to attain in the

studystudy

Objectives should b listed under 2 headingsObjectives should b listed under 2 headings

1.Min objectives – An overall statement of the thrust of the 1.Min objectives – An overall statement of the thrust of the studystudy2. Sub objectives –Specific aspects of the topic should be 2. Sub objectives –Specific aspects of the topic should be listed numericallylisted numerically

Characteristics of Objectives:-Characteristics of Objectives:-

1.Clear1.Clear 2.Complete2.Complete 3.Spcific3.Spcific 4.Identify the min variables to be correlated4.Identify the min variables to be correlated 5.Identify the directions of the relationship 5.Identify the directions of the relationship

Establishing Operational Establishing Operational DefinitionsDefinitions

The Researcher needs to develop operational definitions The Researcher needs to develop operational definitions for the major concepts you are using in the study & for the major concepts you are using in the study & develop a framework for the study population enabling develop a framework for the study population enabling the researcher to select appropriate respondentsthe researcher to select appropriate respondents

Operational definitions give an operational meaning to Operational definitions give an operational meaning to the study population & the concepts usedthe study population & the concepts used

Eg:- The main objective is ,Eg:- The main objective is , To measure the effectiveness o a retraining program To measure the effectiveness o a retraining program

designed to help Young Peopledesigned to help Young People It is equally important to decide exactly what you mean It is equally important to decide exactly what you mean

by “young” up to what age will you consider a person to by “young” up to what age will you consider a person to be Child, Who would you consider Young?be Child, Who would you consider Young?

Operationalisation of concepts & the study population :-Operationalisation of concepts & the study population :-

StudStudyy

ConceptConcept IssuesIssues Population Population to be to be studiedstudied

11 EffectivenessEffectiveness What What constitutes constitutes ”Effectiveness””Effectiveness”

The YoungThe Young Who would Who would consider a consider a Young Young personperson

Identifying VariablesIdentifying Variables

The Definition of a VariableThe Definition of a Variable An image , perception or concept that is An image , perception or concept that is

capable of measurement , hence capable of capable of measurement , hence capable of taking on different values is called a variable taking on different values is called a variable

Or Or A concept that can be measured A concept that can be measured

Eg : Eg : 1. This program is effective1. This program is effective2.We are providing a Quality 2.We are providing a Quality

service to service to our clientsour clients3.This product is doing well3.This product is doing well

The difference between a The difference between a concept & a variableconcept & a variable

Concepts are mental Concepts are mental images or perceptions images or perceptions and therefore their and therefore their meanings vary meanings vary markedly from markedly from individual to individual to individual individual

Where as ,Where as , Variables are Variables are

measurable , of measurable , of course with varying course with varying degrees of accuracydegrees of accuracy

ConceptsConcepts VariablesVariables

EffectivenessEffectiveness

SatisfactionSatisfaction

RichRich

ExcellentExcellent

Gender Gender (Male/female)(Male/female)

AttitudeAttitude

Weight Weight

Height Height

-Subjective -Subjective impressionimpression

No uniformity as No uniformity as to its to its understanding understanding among different among different peoplepeople

As such cannot As such cannot be measuredbe measured

Measurable Measurable through the through the degree of degree of precision varies precision varies from scale to from scale to scale from scale from variable to variable to variable variable

Concepts , indicators and Concepts , indicators and Variables Variables

If a If a conceptconcept is used in a study , the is used in a study , the researcher need to consider its researcher need to consider its operationalisation, that is , how it will operationalisation, that is , how it will be measuredbe measured

To operationlise a concept , first To operationlise a concept , first need to go through the process of need to go through the process of identifying identifying indicatorsindicators, a set of , a set of criteria reflective of the concept criteria reflective of the concept which can then be converted into which can then be converted into variablesvariables. .

Types of VariableTypes of Variable Independent variable – The cause supposed to be Independent variable – The cause supposed to be

responsible for bringing about changes in a responsible for bringing about changes in a phenomenon or situationphenomenon or situation

Dependent variable – The outcome of the changes Dependent variable – The outcome of the changes brought about by introduction of an independent brought about by introduction of an independent variablevariable

Extraneous variable- several other factors Extraneous variable- several other factors operating in a real life situation may affect operating in a real life situation may affect changes in the dependent variable. These factors , changes in the dependent variable. These factors , not measured in the study, may increase or not measured in the study, may increase or decrease the magnitude or strength o the decrease the magnitude or strength o the relationship between independent and dependent relationship between independent and dependent variablesvariables

Intervening variable – This links the independent Intervening variable – This links the independent and dependent variable. and dependent variable.

Types measurement scaleTypes measurement scale

There are four measurement categoriesThere are four measurement categories1.1. Nominal or classificatory scale – Each subgroup Nominal or classificatory scale – Each subgroup

has a characteristic /property which is common has a characteristic /property which is common to all classified within that subgroupsto all classified within that subgroupsEg. Tree, House, Taxi, Gender :Male/FemaleEg. Tree, House, Taxi, Gender :Male/Female

2. Ordinal or ranking scale – It has the characteristics 2. Ordinal or ranking scale – It has the characteristics of a Nominal scaleof a Nominal scaleEg. Income (Above average, Average, low)Eg. Income (Above average, Average, low)

3. Interval scale – It has all the characteristics of an 3. Interval scale – It has all the characteristics of an ordinal scale ordinal scale Eg: Temperature Eg: Temperature

4. Ratio – It has all the properties of an interval scale.4. Ratio – It has all the properties of an interval scale.Eg: Height, income Eg: Height, income

Constructing HypothesisConstructing HypothesisThe Definition of a Hypothesis,The Definition of a Hypothesis,

The second important consideration in the formulation of a The second important consideration in the formulation of a research problem is the construction of hypothesis.research problem is the construction of hypothesis.

Hypotheses bring clarity, specify and focus to research Hypotheses bring clarity, specify and focus to research problem, but are not essential for a studyproblem, but are not essential for a study

Hypotheses are based on guesses. As researcher, it is not Hypotheses are based on guesses. As researcher, it is not required to know about the phenomena , a situation , the required to know about the phenomena , a situation , the prevalence of a condition in a population or about the prevalence of a condition in a population or about the outcome of a program , but has to have a hunch to form outcome of a program , but has to have a hunch to form the basis of certain assumptions or guesses. The the basis of certain assumptions or guesses. The verification process should be don based on the verification process should be don based on the information and the verification process will provide one of information and the verification process will provide one of the three outcomes below,the three outcomes below,

1.right1.right2.partially right 2.partially right 3.worng3.worng

Without this process o verification, the researcher cannot Without this process o verification, the researcher cannot conclude anything about the validity of the assumption.conclude anything about the validity of the assumption.

Hence Hypotheses is a hunch, assumption, suspicion, Hence Hypotheses is a hunch, assumption, suspicion, assertion or an idea about a phenomenon, relationship or assertion or an idea about a phenomenon, relationship or situation , the reality or truth of which do not know . situation , the reality or truth of which do not know .

The functions of HypothesisThe functions of Hypothesis The formulation of hypotheses provided a The formulation of hypotheses provided a

study with focus. It tells what specific study with focus. It tells what specific aspects of a research problem to aspects of a research problem to investigateinvestigate

A hypotheses tells what data to collect and A hypotheses tells what data to collect and what not to collect, thereby providing focus what not to collect, thereby providing focus to the studyto the study

As it provides a focus, the construction of a As it provides a focus, the construction of a hypothesis enhances objectivity in a studyhypothesis enhances objectivity in a study

A hypothesis may enable to add to the A hypothesis may enable to add to the formulation of theory. It enables to formulation of theory. It enables to specifically conclude what is true or what is specifically conclude what is true or what is false.false.

The characteristics of a The characteristics of a hypothesishypothesis

A hypothesis should be simple , specific and A hypothesis should be simple , specific and conceptually clearconceptually clearEg: The average age o the male students in this class is Eg: The average age o the male students in this class is higher than that of the female students higher than that of the female students

A Hypotheses should be capable of verifications – A Hypotheses should be capable of verifications – Methods and techniques must be available for data Methods and techniques must be available for data collection and analysis collection and analysis

A hypotheses should be related to the existing body A hypotheses should be related to the existing body of knowledge – It is important that hypotheses of knowledge – It is important that hypotheses emerges from the existing body of knowledgeemerges from the existing body of knowledge

A Hypotheses should be Operationalisble – This A Hypotheses should be Operationalisble – This mans that it can be expressed in terms that can be mans that it can be expressed in terms that can be measured.measured.

Types of HypothesisTypes of Hypothesis Broadly there are two categories of Broadly there are two categories of

hypothesishypothesis1.Research hypotheses1.Research hypotheses2.Alternativc Hypotheses2.Alternativc Hypotheses– The formulation of an alternative hypotheses is a The formulation of an alternative hypotheses is a

convention in scientific circles. Its main function is convention in scientific circles. Its main function is to explicitly specify the relationship that will be to explicitly specify the relationship that will be considered as true in case the research considered as true in case the research hypotheses proves to be wrong.hypotheses proves to be wrong.

– Alternative hypothesis is the opposite of the Alternative hypothesis is the opposite of the research hypothesesresearch hypotheses

– A null hypothesis or hypotheses of no difference is A null hypothesis or hypotheses of no difference is formulated as an alternative hypothesis.formulated as an alternative hypothesis.

Null Hypothesis –Null Hypothesis – When constructing hypothesis When constructing hypothesis stipulating that there is no difference between two stipulating that there is no difference between two situations, groups outcomes or the prevalence of situations, groups outcomes or the prevalence of condition or phenomenon .condition or phenomenon .

Hypothesis difference –Hypothesis difference – A hypothesis in which A hypothesis in which researcher stipulates that there will be difference researcher stipulates that there will be difference but does not specify it magnitude.but does not specify it magnitude.

Hypotheses of point –prevalence –Hypotheses of point –prevalence – Outcomes Outcomes is known in quantitative units eg. The proportion of is known in quantitative units eg. The proportion of mal & female smokers is 60 and 30 per cent mal & female smokers is 60 and 30 per cent respectively.respectively.

Hypothesis of association –Hypothesis of association – The relationship The relationship between the impact of different combinations on between the impact of different combinations on the dependent variable or relationship between the dependent variable or relationship between the prevalence of a phenomenon among different the prevalence of a phenomenon among different populations .populations .

Errors in testing a hypothesis Errors in testing a hypothesis

Incorrect conclusions about the validity of a Incorrect conclusions about the validity of a hypothesis may be drawn if,hypothesis may be drawn if,

The study design selected is faultyThe study design selected is faulty The sampling procedure adopted is faultyThe sampling procedure adopted is faulty The method of data collection is inaccurateThe method of data collection is inaccurate The analysis is wrongThe analysis is wrong The statistical procedures applied are inappropriateThe statistical procedures applied are inappropriate The conclusions drawn are incorrectThe conclusions drawn are incorrect

Rejection of a null hypotheses when it is true. This Rejection of a null hypotheses when it is true. This is know as a Type I error.is know as a Type I error.

Acceptance of a null hypothesis when it is false. Acceptance of a null hypothesis when it is false. This is know s a Type II error. This is know s a Type II error.

The Research DesignThe Research Design

The Definition of a Research The Definition of a Research DesignDesign

A Research design is a procedural plan A Research design is a procedural plan that is adopted by the researcher to that is adopted by the researcher to answer questions validity, answer questions validity, objectively, accurately and objectively, accurately and economically. economically.

Functions of a Research DesignFunctions of a Research Design

Conceptualize an operational plan to Conceptualize an operational plan to undertake the various procedures and undertake the various procedures and tasks required to complete the studytasks required to complete the study

Ensure that procedures are adequate to Ensure that procedures are adequate to obtain valid, objective and accurate obtain valid, objective and accurate answers to the research questions. answers to the research questions.

Selecting a method of data Selecting a method of data collectioncollection

There are two major approaches to There are two major approaches to gather information about a situation, gather information about a situation, person, problem or phenomenon.person, problem or phenomenon.1. Secondary data – Information gathered 1. Secondary data – Information gathered

using the first approach is said to be using the first approach is said to be collected from secondary sourcescollected from secondary sources

2. Primary data - the sources used in the 2. Primary data - the sources used in the second approachsecond approach

Method of data collection Method of data collection

Method of data collection

Secondary sources Primary sources

Documents

-Govmt publications-Earlier research-Census-Personal records-Client histories-Service records

Observation Interviewing Questionnaire

Participant

Non-Participant

Structured

Unstructured

Mailed Questionnaire

CollectiveQuestionnaire

Collecting data using attitudinal scales Collecting data using attitudinal scales

Functions of attitudinal scaleFunctions of attitudinal scale Respondents usually have different attitudes towards Respondents usually have different attitudes towards

different aspects. different aspects. If the researcher want to find out the attitude of If the researcher want to find out the attitude of

respondents towards an issue, either a closed ended or an respondents towards an issue, either a closed ended or an open ended question can be asked.open ended question can be asked.

Difficulties in developing an attitudinal scaleDifficulties in developing an attitudinal scale

1.Wic aspects of a situation or issue should be included when 1.Wic aspects of a situation or issue should be included when seeking to measure an attitude? seeking to measure an attitude?

Eg. What is your attitude towards you’re your lecturer?, In this Eg. What is your attitude towards you’re your lecturer?, In this what aspects of teaching should be included in a scale to what aspects of teaching should be included in a scale to find out the attitude of students towards their lecturer?find out the attitude of students towards their lecturer?

2. What procedure should be adopted for combining the 2. What procedure should be adopted for combining the different aspects to obtain an overall picture ?different aspects to obtain an overall picture ?

3.How can one ensure that a scale rally is measuring what it is 3.How can one ensure that a scale rally is measuring what it is supposed to measure?supposed to measure?

Types of Attitudinal scaleTypes of Attitudinal scale

There are three major types of There are three major types of attitudinal scale,attitudinal scale,

1.1. The summated rating scale, also The summated rating scale, also know as the Linkert scale know as the Linkert scale

2.2. The equal appearing interval scale The equal appearing interval scale or different scale, also know as the or different scale, also know as the Thurstone scaleThurstone scale

3.3. The cumulative scale , also know as The cumulative scale , also know as the Guttman scalethe Guttman scale

Establishing the validity and Establishing the validity and reliability of a research reliability of a research

instrument instrument There are two perspectives on validity:There are two perspectives on validity:1.1. Is the research investigations providing answers to the Is the research investigations providing answers to the

research questions for which it was undertaken?research questions for which it was undertaken?2.2. If so, is it providing these answers using appropriate If so, is it providing these answers using appropriate

methods and procedures?methods and procedures?

The concept of ValidityThe concept of ValidityIt is important to remember that the It is important to remember that the concept of validity is pertinent only to a concept of validity is pertinent only to a particular instrument and it is an ideal particular instrument and it is an ideal state that you as a researcher to state that you as a researcher to achieve. achieve.

Types of Validity Types of Validity

There are three types of validityThere are three types of validity

1.1. Face and content validity – Each question or item on Face and content validity – Each question or item on the scale must have a logical link with an objective. the scale must have a logical link with an objective. Establishment of this link is called “Face validity” Establishment of this link is called “Face validity”

2.2. Concurrent and predictive validity – Predictive Concurrent and predictive validity – Predictive validity is judged by the degree to which an validity is judged by the degree to which an instrument can forecast an outcome. Concurrent instrument can forecast an outcome. Concurrent validity is judged by Howell an instrument compares validity is judged by Howell an instrument compares with a second assessment concurrently done. with a second assessment concurrently done.

3.3. Construct validity – Construct validity is a more Construct validity – Construct validity is a more sophisticated technique for establishing the validity sophisticated technique for establishing the validity of n instrument. It is I based upon statistical of n instrument. It is I based upon statistical procedures. It is determined by ascertaining the procedures. It is determined by ascertaining the contribution of each construct to the total variance contribution of each construct to the total variance observed in a phenomenon.observed in a phenomenon.

The Concept of ReliabilityThe Concept of Reliability

Reliability is the degree of accuracy or precision Reliability is the degree of accuracy or precision in the measurement made by a research in the measurement made by a research instrument.instrument.

The concept of reliability in relation to research The concept of reliability in relation to research can be looked at from two sides,can be looked at from two sides,

1.1. How reliable is an instrument ?How reliable is an instrument ?2.2. How unreliable is it ?How unreliable is it ?

The first question focus on the ability of an The first question focus on the ability of an instrument to produce consistent instrument to produce consistent

measurementmeasurement The second question focuses on the The second question focuses on the

degree degree of inconsistency in the measurement of inconsistency in the measurement made made by an instrument.by an instrument.

Factors affecting the reliability of a Factors affecting the reliability of a research instrumentresearch instrument

The wording of questionThe wording of question The physical settingThe physical setting The respondent’s moodThe respondent’s mood The nature of interactionThe nature of interaction The regression effect of an instrument The regression effect of an instrument

Method of determining the reliability of Method of determining the reliability of an instrumentan instrument

1.1. External consistency proceduresExternal consistency procedures2.2. Internal consistency proceduresInternal consistency procedures

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