Preparing Students for Postsecondary Education

Students with disabilities are increasing-ly enrolled in postsecondary education,yet many of them are not prepared tocope with the rigor of higher education.Students who do not have the skills ofself-empowerment often experiencefrustration and discouragement in thepostsecondary setting, leading to theirdropping out of school and eventuallyexperiencing less positive outcomes. Atthe same time, many higher educationfaculty members are not aware of howto work with students with disabilities,nor are they familiar with policies relat-ed to student rights and accommoda-tions. There are some practical strate-gies for faculty, as well as K–12 teach-ers, to help students with and withoutdisabilities develop skills of self-advoca-cy, self-regulation, internal locus of con-trol, and self-knowledge—so they canbecome empowered to take responsibil-ity for their own learning.

According to the 2006 National Longi-tudinal Transition Study (Wagner, New-man, Cameto, Levine, & Garza, 2006),the percentage of students with disabil-ities completing high school increasedby 17% between 1987 and 2003, with a

corresponding 32% increase in enroll-ment in some kind of postsecondaryschools (National Council on Disability,2003; Wagner et al.). However, morethan half of these students are at risk offailure (Jones, 2002; National Councilon Disability, 2003). The NationalCouncil on Disability (2004) reports thatone of the major reasons for this highdropout rate is that university studentswith disabilities are not prepared tocope with the rigor of postsecondaryeducation. Support services for transi-tion between secondary schools andhigher education are often fragmentedand inconsistent in helping studentsdevelop requisite skills for postsec-ondary education (Dukes & Shaw, 1999;Izzo, Hertzfeld, & Aaron, 2001; NationalCouncil on Disability, 2004; Stodden,Jones & Chang, 2002). In addition, thereis a lack of collaboration at the highereducation level between faculty and aninstitution’s office of student services

when it comes to providing services tohelp prepare students for disability-related challenges they may encounterin the postsecondary setting (Hitchingset al., 2001; Izzo et al.; National Councilon Disability, 2004; Sitlington, Clark, &Kolstoe, 2000).

Support services for transitionbetween secondary schools and

higher education are oftenfragmented and inconsistent in

helping students develop requisite skills for

postsecondary education.

Section 504 of the Rehabilitation Actof 1973 requires students with disabili-ties to disclose their disabilities to their

32 ■ COUNCIL FOR EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN

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PreparingStudents for

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Barbara S. S. Hong

W. Fred Ivy

Humberto R. Gonzalez

Wendy Ehrensberger

institution if they wish to receive rea-sonable accommodations. In postsec-ondary education, classroom accommo-dations are described as “appropriateacademic adjustments” (104.44(e)(a)).Many higher education faculty have notworked with people with disabilities,and have received little preparation inmeeting their needs (National Councilon Disability, 2003). When studentswith disabilities do disclose their dis-abilities, oftentimes faculty memberssimply do not have sufficient knowl-edge to assist them. In fact, many par-ents, students, faculty, and high schoolcounselors themselves are not aware ofthe policy differences for students withdisabilities in terms of rights, services,and funding as a result of IDEA, Section504 of the Rehabilitation Act of 1973,and the Americans With Disabilities Actof 1990 (National Center for the Studyof Postsecondary Educational Supports,NCSPES, 2002; Stodden, Conway, &Chang, 2003).

It is not unusual for faculty membersto believe that students with disabilitiesaccepted into a university program musthave met the same admission require-ments as all other students and shouldhave the skills to function and competeon the same playing field. In fact, stu-dents with disabilities often feel inse-cure when they leave the traditionalclassroom setting to enter higher educa-tion (Hitchings et al., 2001; NationalCouncil on Disability, 2004). Instructionis at a faster pace, coursework requires

more reading, assignments demandhigher-order thinking, writing is moretechnical, and study habits call for moreindependent problem solving and self-strategizing (Rosenbaum, 2004). Aboveall, contact with the instructor is drasti-cally reduced. All these factors combineto create barriers and frustrations forstudents who are not prepared or whohave not acquired sufficient self-regula-tion skills (National Council on Dis-ability, 2003).

Students with disabilities often

feel insecure when they leave the

traditional classroom setting to

enter higher education.

Currently, much concern isexpressed about students with disabili-ties exiting high school with less posi-tive outcomes (NCSPES, 2002; NationalCouncil on Disability, 2003; Wagner etal., 2006), and our attention is focusedon raising standards, hiring more quali-fied teachers, and holding schools moreaccountable. However, what seems tohave been neglected is helping studentswith disabilities develop vital skills thatwill enhance their prospect of success intheir next endeavor (Hicks-Coolick &Kurtz, 1997; Milsom & Hartley, 2005;Wehmeyer, 1996). This is particularlyimperative for students who decide to

pursue postsecondary education.Studies (Izzo & Lamb, 2002; Lamb,2002; NCSPES, 2002; Wagner et al.)have revealed that many students withdisabilities enter college not knowinghow to communicate their needs (self-advocacy); how to evaluate their ownperformance (self-regulation); what itmeans to have a sense of control (locusof control); and their own strengths,interests, and limitations (self-knowl-edge). In short, they are not self-deter-mined. Table 1 lists the essential com-ponents of self-empowerment (cf.Wehmeyer, 1995).

The term self-determination is oftenused interchangeably with self-empow-erment. Martin and Marshall (1995)characterized people who are self-deter-mined as those who:

Know how to choose—they knowwhat they want and how to get it.From an awareness of personalneeds, self-determined individu-als choose goals, and thendoggedly pursue them. Thisinvolves asserting an individual’spresence, making his or her needsknown, evaluating progresstoward meeting goals, adjustingperformance, and creating uniqueapproaches to solve problems. (p. 147)

Both of these terms describe someonewho has developed a combination ofattitudes and abilities to set goals, makedecisions, problem-solve, self-advocate,self-evaluate, and adjust in order to

TEACHING EXCEPTIONAL CHILDREN ■ SEPT/OCT 2007 ■ 33

Table 1. Essential Components of Self-Empowerment

Self-Advocacy Self-Regulation Internal Locus of Control Self-Knowledge

✓ Personal autonomy

✓ Choice indicating preferences

✓ Choice as a decision-making process

✓ Choice as an expression ofautonomy and dignity

✓ Self-management

✓ Self-care

✓ Recreational and social management

✓ Goal setting and attainment

✓ Problem identification,problem expectation, problem resolution, problem solving

✓ Self-observation

✓ Self-management

✓ Self-monitoring;self-evaluation

✓ Self-instruction

✓ Self-reinforcement

✓ Positive attribution of efficacy

✓ Outcome-expectation

✓ Efficacy-expectation

✓ Self-awareness

✓ Self-belief

achieve his or her goals. (See box,“Attributes of a Self-Empowered Indi-vidual”; cf. Field, Martin, Miller, Ward,and Wehmeyer, 1998.)

Students with disabilities who havenot developed adequate skills of self-empowerment are less lightly to be suc-cessful in the postsecondary setting(National Council on Disability, 2003).Hence, it is imperative that faculty andK–12 teachers are knowledgeable aboutstrategies for empowering students.These suggestions are beneficial notonly for students with disabilities, butalso for all students. Instructors (highereducation faculty as well as K–12 teach-ers) first need to understand the com-mon challenges students with disabili-ties face and how these difficulties cor-relate to subsequent ability to cope withthe demands of higher education. Thisarticle presents certain fundamentalpedagogical principles for maximizingstudent engagement in learning,whether in public schools or highereducation setting, and provides somepractical approaches for supporting andfacilitating self-empowerment of stu-dents with disabilities.

Student Capability andDemands of Higher Education

Whether in higher education or theK–12 setting, students are expected toperform multitask responsibilities suchas participating in class discussions,paying attention to lectures, taking andorganizing notes, synthesizing newinformation, staying focused, andresponding to instructor inquiries. Formany students with disabilities, multi-tasking can be extremely challengingand expecting them to do so is unrealis-tic. When students discover there is aproblem in their learning or comprehen-sion, they often do not know how to“fix” it. They cannot identify the prob-lem (self-regulation), determine whatkind of help they need (self-knowl-edge), or identify where to obtain help(self-advocacy). Over time, these stu-dents become discouraged and frustrat-ed and lose confidence in themselves(internal locus of control). In order tohelp these students develop adequateskills of self-empowerment, instructorsmust understand four common areas ofdifficulty many students with disabili-

ties encounter, sometimes on a dailybasis (see Table 2).

In terms of cognitive ability, studentswith disabilities generally are passivelearners (Rosenbaum, 2004); they donot take initiative or actively strategizelearning habits that would help thembecome successful. They tend to experi-ence high levels of attention difficulties,easily wander off task, and have a hardtime distinguishing pertinent informa-tion from irrelevant data to enhancecontent understanding. The problem ofpassive learning is compounded by thefact that many of these students enterhigher education with reading skills atleast three grades below their last gradelevel (Sabornie & deBettencourt, 2004).Many students do not see how attend-ing class, paying attention to lectures,doing assignments, and reading the textcan have an effect on the outcome ofthe course (Rosenbaum). Given thesechallenges, it’s no wonder so many stu-dents with disabilities struggle to meethigh demands for content literacy, in-depth analysis, critical synthesis, andevaluative reading and writing assign-ments.

Pedagogical Principles forMaximizing Student Learning It is not uncommon for many faculty orK–12 teachers to be unaware of or beunable to articulate best practices whenit comes to maximizing student learn-ing. In order to determine what accom-modation a student with a disabilityneeds and when appropriate and rea-sonable assistance should be offered,instructors must first be aware of thestudent’s specific learning aptitudes andattributes. Instructors can ask thesethree essential questions to gaugewhether the student’s academic adjust-ments are necessary and appropriate:

✓ To what extent can this studentmeet the demands of the specifictask (prerequisite skills, knowledgeof content, and clarity of direction)?

✓ What is the student’s current levelof specific learning abilities to per-form the task? Does the studentunderstand what is being taughtand is he or she able to use thatknowledge to perform the task?


Attributes of a Self-Empowered Individual

• Knows how to differentiate one’s wants and needs.

• Makes choices based on one's preferences, interests, strengths, andlimitations.

• Sets goals and works toward goals.

• Considers options and anticipates consequencesbecause of one’s decision.

• Assumes responsibility for positive and negative outcomes.

• Uses effective communication skills.

• Evaluates one’s decisions based onoutcomes of previous decisions.

• Revises futuredecisions/plans/goalsbased on previous outcomes.

• Strives for independence while recognizing one’s interdependencewith others.

• Uses self-advocacy skills.

• Is self-confident, persistent, and creative.

✓ What is the student’s current func-tioning level in strategies for learn-ing the task? Does the student knowhow to go about studying or mas-tering the content knowledge neces-sary to complete the task?

One of the most critical componentsin facilitating student self-empower-ment skills is to create a learning envi-ronment where there is an optimalamount of support and opportunity forall learners, regardless of disability.Carlson’s (1980) several general princi-

ples of learning and motivation havebeen widely used by many practitionersin creating such an environment.Carlson suggests that once open andhonest communication is established,learning should be made meaningful sothat students can relate what they arelearning to their background experienceand prior knowledge. Instructors shouldbe knowledgeable about specific prereq-uisite skills and knowledge beforebeginning instruction or schedulingassignments. During lesson presenta-tions, instructors should model the

process of formulating specific ques-tions, which will assist students in thedevelopment of proactive learninghabits. Carlson stresses creating anenvironment that encourages students’active participation in class discussionsand group activities. Instructors shouldbe mindful of the pace of instructionwhen introducing new concepts andassessing student understanding ofthose concepts. Instructors can increasestudents’ attention and motivation tolearn by employing novel ideas in lec-tures, course activities, and assign-


Table 2. Student Challenges and Impacts

Students with . . . Are less likely to . . . Are more likely to . . .

Poor problem-solving skills • Create and apply strategies to problem situations

• Ask questions to resolve concerns

• Advocate for own needs in order to solve problematicsituations

• Seek assistance from peers

• Initiate learning groups

Accept what is being offered,even though services orinstruction may not be appropriate, sufficient, or correctly delivered

Poor evaluation skills • Consider prerequisite skills before attempting a task

• Be aware of their own limitations and capabilities in handling various tasks

• Set goals or have realistic expectations

• Understand how to manage tasks (e.g., carrying more credits than one can manage)

• Employ strategies to determine own progress

• Recognize own improvement or lack of progress

Rely on others to evaluatehow they are performing

Poor monitoring skills • Ask questions or recognize own lack of understanding

• Apply error-monitoring strategies to tasks

• Use rehearsal strategies to learn content

• Develop the steady study skills and learning habits needed to perform higher-order-level tasks

• Reinforce or challenge self to make progress

• Adjust goals, strategies, or situations to improve self

Lack self-control, self-discipline, and self-management

Poor communication skills • Verbalize own needs

• Develop effective speaking, negotiating, and conversational skills

• Volunteer to lead a discussion, share different points of view, or inquire further for deeper understanding

• Know “who” they are and their own preferences, beliefs, and thoughts

• Be confident in themselves

• Take on leadership roles

• Be creative

• Be persistent in pursuing questions not understood

Let others direct their lives


Table 3. Strategies for Empowering Students

Help students obtaintimely and appropriateservices

• Provide pertinent and timely information (e.g., syllabus, textbook title, test dates, criteria for coursecompletion, rubrics) to enable students to request needed services/accommodations (e.g., reader, notetaker, scribe, sign language interpreter, extended time, Braille embosser, software speech synthesizer, taperecorder, other assistive technology).

• Help students understand their responsibilities to identify what services are provided at the institutionand to request accommodations at the beginning of the term. (Providing them pertinent informationbefore the course begins gives students enough time to obtain materials or arrange services.)

• Respect student confidentiality rights and nondisclosure; do not discuss their disabilities andaccommodations with other instructors or students.

• Do not discourage students from participating in any course activity or assignment due to a lack ofservices.

• Encourage students to advocate for their right to reasonable accommodation. Model how to effectivelycommunicate needs to instructors and student services.

Plan instruction that develops self-regulatory behaviors

• Be consistent and clear about what is expected of students for individual assignments, assignmentdeadlines, and the grading of individual assignments. Specify standards for assessing assignments viarubrics to permit students to better understand how their work is measured and whether they aremeeting expectations. Provide examples of past assignments that met target expectations and those thatdid not so students have a better idea of what is expected. Help students understand that all studentcoursework is graded by the same measures, but that the instructor is available to assist them.

• Be flexible. Within set guidelines, allow students to meet course requirements via alternate modes ofpresentation or to make up work, instead of rigidly sticking to the original syllabus. This helps studentsto solve their own problems, generate realistic options, anticipate consequences for their decisions, anddevelop a sense of self-efficacy.

• Divide complicated assignments into smaller units, so that students can monitor their progress. • Encourage students to participate; do not penalize those who are not comfortable speaking out in class.

Provide students ample opportunities to learn how to verbalize their thoughts, express their opinions,share their perspectives, and defend their ideas.

• Utilize case studies and experiential learning relevant to student backgrounds, training, and interestsso they can meaningfully relate what they are learning to what they already know. Students learn to useself-instruction and self-directing techniques to regulate their own learning.

• Never make students feel they are not capable of making decisions because of their disability. Createopportunities that encourage students to choose when, how, where, and with whom they will completean activity.

• Allow room for trial and error during guided practice and before an assignment is taken home or is due.• Address student grievances, confusion, and conflicts. Students may not know how to resolve their

school problems, what questions are considered appropriate, or how an instructor will react to theirconcerns. Students may not want to voice an opinion for fear of jeopardizing their grade.

Integrate essentialstudy and learningskills

• Acknowledge students’ successful strategies in memorizing, reading, analyzing, and answering questions, and help them generalize and transfer these strategies to another course or activity. Encouragestudents to share successful strategies so that everyone can examine alternative ways to approach a task.This not only helps students learn to take constructive feedback from others, but also enables them toverbalize what works and what does not work in their own learning habits.

• Provide a checklist or chart for students who need visual assistance in organizational techniques, timemanagement, schedules, and dates for completing an assignment.

• Offer to help students organize their schedule to minimize conflict with other assignments, whether inthe same class or different class. Students learn to plan ahead to complete the first assignment due andto schedule their time accordingly. Help students set realistic goals, practical timelines, and reasonableprocedures for monitoring their own learning.

• Emphasize students' successes rather than highlighting limitations. For example, indicate the numberof items the student scored correctly (6/10) versus ones scored incorrectly (–4). Percentages may notaccurately give students an identifiable assessment of how they did on a test (e.g., 70% of a 10-item testversus 70% of a 50-item test). Acknowledge specific positive performance of students rather than usinggeneral remarks such as “nice job,” “good work,” or simply a letter grade. Instead, use descriptivephrases (“Your essay demonstrates the key component of organization in writing and in logicalargument,” “I see improvement in your use of spell-check,” “I understand that you went to the writinglab before you handed in your work; that is a productive habit,” or “I see that you have joined a studygroup to prepare for the final exam; that is good initiative on your part.”).

• Help students acknowledge and accept their own effort in experiencing positive outcomes (students’hard work, good study skills, sustained attention during class, efficient management of time, regularattendance of class, keeping up with reading assignments, handing in assignments on time, andproactively participating in course activity).

• Teach and model essential social skills such as how to ask questions, how to communicate withprofessionals and classmates, when to volunteer or participate in class activities, and how to give a different opinion without becoming defensive or argumentative.

ments. When giving assignments, theinstructor should be sure to clarify thedirections and expectations for all stu-dents. Those expectations should berealistic as well as challenging for allstudents. Finally, instructors can utilizemultiple approaches when evaluatingstudent learning outcomes. Multiplechoice questions, written essays, groupassignments, class presentations, andportfolios are all acceptable ways toevaluate student learning. Wheninstructors utilize these principles oflearning and motivation, they are creat-ing a learning environment that con-tributes to constructive learning.

“Barrier-Free” Environment Federal laws mandate that higher insti-tutions provide a safe, barrier-free envi-ronment to ensure equal access for stu-dents with disabilities. Students come tocollege with similar needs as when theywere in the public schools. Higher edu-cation faculty need to take into accountthe sometimes seemingly insignificantyet critical environmental needs of stu-dents in order to enhance their learningexperience. Instructors cannot alwaysdetermine or have any say regardingwhether furnishings for students with a(physical) disability are appropriate; it isimportant to maintain open communi-cation with the university’s studentservices or public school central officeto discuss possible or alternate access.Instructors should be mindful about thesize of the desk, desk level, ease of writ-ing on the table, the height between thetable and the student’s feet on the floor,writing space (especially for studentswho utilize assistive technology such asscreen magnifiers, alternate keyboardsor mouse-type devices), and the com-fort of the seat itself (e.g., for studentswho carry portable IVs or other medicalsupplement). Instructors should alsotake into account the need for extraclassroom space in order to maneuverequipment such as leg braces, walkingcane, crutches, wheelchairs, or specialstanding tables. In addition, beforebeginning a lesson, the instructorshould consider the extra time studentsmay need to set up their writing stylus,optical aids, magnification devices,amplification equipment, writing lap-

boards, automatic page turners, laptops,and so forth. Equally important forK–12 teachers is to teach students howand when to communicate their needs(physical access, space, or time) whenthey are in a postsecondary setting.

Federal laws mandate that higher

institutions provide a safe,

barrier-free environment

to ensure equal access for

students with disabilities.

External environmental conditionsthat instructors must take into accountwhen working with students with dis-abilities include appropriate lighting forstudents with visual impairment orthose who are sensitive to light andsound, well circulated ventilation andtemperature needs for students withhealth impairments (e.g., asthma), andeasier access to the door for studentswho need to use the restroom frequent-ly. Students with learning difficultiesoften become distracted because theycannot concentrate. Particularly whenworking with students who have hear-ing problems or attention issues,instructors need to consider the sensi-tivity level of “white noise” from over-head projectors and other equipment, orthe hallway noise from outside theclassroom.

Strategies for EmpoweringStudents

Instructors can significantly enhancestudents with disabilities’ ability to suc-ceed in postsecondary settings by focus-ing on three areas: (a) helping studentsto obtain timely and appropriate servic-es; (b) planning instruction whichdevelops self-regulatory behaviors; and(c) integrating essential study and learn-ing skills into coursework. Even thoughmost of these strategies are more rele-vant in postsecondary settings, it isequally critical for K–12 teachers to helpstudents anticipate the demands ofhigher education. Table 3 provides a

checklist of strategies in each of theseareas.

Final Thoughts With the increasing enrollment of stu-dents with disabilities in postsecondaryeducation, there is an urgent need forhigher education faculty as well as K–12teachers to become vigilant not onlyabout regulations and accommodationspertaining to students with disabilitiesbut also about helping students developthe skills necessary to take responsibili-ty for their own learning. The strategiespresented here are equally beneficial forstudents with or without disabilities.When instructors are willing and able tomake an effort in promoting skills ofself-empowerment, students willbecome more engaged in learning andmore likely to be successful in school.

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Lamb, M. (2002). Preliminary findings on acollege success class for students with dis-abilities. Honolulu, HI: National Centerfor the Study of Postsecondary Educa-tional Supports, University of Hawaii atManoa.

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Wagner, M., Newman, L., Cameto, R.,Levine, P., & Garza, N. (2006). Anoverview of findings from Wave 2 of theNational Longitudinal Transition Study-2(NLTS2). Menlo Park, CA: SRI Interna-tional. Retrieved on September 27, 2006,from www.nlts2.org/reports/2006_08/nlts2_ report_2006_08_complete. pdf

Wehmeyer, M. L. (1995). The Arc’s self-deter-mination scale. Washington, DC: Depart-ment of Education Office of SpecialEducation and Rehabilitative Services.

Wehmeyer, M. L. (1996). Self-determinationas an educational outcome: Why is itimportant to children, youth and adultswith disabilities? In D. J. Sands, & M. L.Wehmeyer (Eds.), Self-determinationacross the life span: Independence andchoice for people with disabilities (pp.15–34). Baltimore: Paul H. Brookes.

Barbara S. S. Hong (CEC TX Federation),Associate Professor; W. Fred Ivy, AssociateProfessor; and Humberto R. Gonzalez, Deanand Associate Professor, College of Education,Texas A&M International University, Laredo.Wendy Ehrensberger (CEC NY Federation),Instructor, Dowling College, Oakdale, NewYork.

Address correspondence to Barbara Hong,Department of Professional Programs, Collegeof Education, Texas A&M InternationalUniversity, Laredo, TX 78041 (e-mail:[email protected]).

TEACHING Exceptional Children, Vol. 40,No. 1, pp. 32–38.

Copyright 2007 CEC.
