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What are the factors influencing perception?
What are common perceptual distortions?
What is social learning theory?
What is the link between attribution and
perception?
What is involved in learning by reinforcement?
4-2Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Perception
The process by
which people select,
organize, interpret,
retrieve, and
respond to
information from the
world around them.
4-3Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-4Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-5Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
What do you see?
4-6Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Influence Factors
Stages of PerceptionResponse
(Feeling, thinking, acting)
Organization RetrievalAttention and Selection
Schemas/Scripts
Organization Attention and Selection
Organization Attention and Selection
Attention and selection
Selective screening
Lets in only a tiny portion all the information that
is available
Two types of selective screening
Controlled processing
Screening without perceiver’s conscious
awareness
4-7Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Schemas
Cognitive frameworks that represent
organized knowledge about a given
concept or stimulus developed through
experience.
4-8Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Self schema
Contains information about a person’s own
appearance, behavior, and personality.
Person schema
Refers to the way individuals sort others
into categories in terms of similar
perceived features.
4-9Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Script schema a knowledge framework
that describes the
appropriate sequence of
events in a given
situation.
Person-in-situation
schema combines schemas built
around persons and
events.
4-10Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
You have just been told that your job has
been ‘down-sized’. This has never
happened to you before. Now what?
1) Take cues from your environment.
2) Pay attention to salient cues.
3) Create a new mental category (laid off).
4) Consider how others have responded.
4-11Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Interpretatio
n
Uncovering
the reasons
behind the
ways stimuli
are grouped.
4-12Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Retrieval
Attention and selection, organization, and
interpretation are part of memory.
Information stored in memory must be
retrieved in order to be used.
4-13Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Impression Management
Systematic attempt to influence how
others perceive us.
Cultivating positive impressions can help
to advance a job or career.
4-14Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Stereotypes
Assigns attributes to an individual that are
commonly associated with a group.
Individual differences are obscured.
Strong impact at the organization stage.
4-15Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Halo effects
Occur when one attribute of a person or
situation is used to develop an overall
impression of the individual or situation.
4-16Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Selective perception
The tendency to single out for attention
those aspects of a situation, person, or
object that are consistent with one’s
needs, values, or attitudes.
4-17Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Projection
The assignment of one’s personal
attributes to other individuals.
4-18Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Contrast effects
Occur when an individual’s characteristics
are contrasted with those of others
recently encountered, who rank higher or
lower on the same characteristics.
4-19Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Self-fulfilling
prophecy
The tendency to
create or find in
another situation or
individual that which
one expected to find.
4-20Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-21
SELF FULFILLING PROPHESY
Think about the self-fulfilling prophecy. Which
of the following would not be a good idea?
a. Instill confidence in your staff.
b. Identify errors in employee’s performance
and refer to them often.
c. Treat all new employees as if they are star
performers.
d. Set high performance goals.
4-22Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Attribution
Process of creating explanations for events.
Can be classified as internal or external: Internal factors – Personal characteristics that cause behavior (e.g., ,
lack of knowledge, ability, effort, motivation, attitude)
External factors – Environmental characteristics that cause behavior
(e.g., task difficulty, good/bad luck, not enough training, situational
factors like technical malfunctions, weather, health)
4-23Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Distinctiveness Consistency of a person’s behavior across
situations.
Consensus Likelihood of others responding in a similar way.
Consistency Whether an individual responds the same way
across time.
4-24Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-25Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. 4-26
External Attribution* High consensus* High distinctiveness* Low consistency
Internal Attribution* Low consensus* Low distinctiveness* High consistency
Fundamental attribution error
“Your poor performance is caused by you!”
In general, we tend to blame the person
first, not the situation.
4-27Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Self-serving bias
Tendency to take more personal
responsibility for success than failure.
I got an “A” because I studied.
I got a “D” because the exam was too hard.
4-28Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Do not overlook the external causes of others’ behaviors. (Identify and confront your stereotypes, your biases, your preconceived notions.)
Evaluate people based on objective factors.
Do not rush to judgment http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b5ZljnMmrI
s(5.13 sec)
4-29Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Cultural differences in attributions :
Individualistic cultures - managers more likely to
attribute employee poor performance to internal
causes.
Negative attributes – blame team-mates for
subordinates for performance problems.
Collectivist cultures – overemphasize self-serving
bias; managers blame themselves for group’s
failure.
4-30Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Social learning theory
Describes how learning occurs through
interactions among people, behavior, and
environment.
4-31Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Self efficacy
The person’s belief that he or she can
perform adequately in a situation (self-
confidence, competence, ability).
Key factor in self-control.
4-32Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Reinforcement
The administration of a consequence as a
result of a behavior.
Appropriate use of reinforcement used can
alter the direction, level and persistence of
a behavior.
4-33Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Classical conditioning
A form of learning through association that
involves the manipulation of stimuli to
influence behavior.
Stimulus
Something that elicits some kind of a
response.
4-34Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Operant conditioning
The process of controlling behavior by
manipulating, or “operating” on, its
consequences.
Considered ‘learning by reinforcement’.
4-35Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-36Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Law of effect
Behavior that results in a pleasant
outcome is likely to be repeated while
behavior that results in an unpleasant
outcome is not likely to be repeated.
4-37Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
You work really hard at your job, and
are not rewarded. The “law of
effect” would suggest that you will
a.Quit
b.Keep trying to impress the right
people4-38Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-39Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Organizational behavior
modification
(OB Mod)
The systematic reinforcement of desirable
work behavior and the non-reinforcement
or punishment of unwanted work behavior.
4-40Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Positive reinforcement
Increases the frequency of a behavior
through the contingent presentation of a
desirable consequence.
Law of contingent reinforcement - only the
correctly exhibited behavior is rewarded.
Law of immediate reinforcement – reward
must be provided as soon as possible after the
behavior.
4-41Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Shaping
Creation of a new behavior by the positive
reinforcement of successive
approximations to the desired behavior.
4-42Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Continuous reinforcement
Administering a reward each time the
desired behavior occurs.
Intermittent reinforcement
Rewards behavior periodically — either on
the basis of time elapsed or the number of
desired behaviors exhibited.
4-43Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-44Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Negative reinforcement
The withdrawal of negative consequences
to increase the likelihood of repeating the
desired behavior in a similar setting.
4-45Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Punishment
The administration of negative
consequences, or the withdrawal of
positive consequences, to reduce the
likelihood of repeating the behavior in
similar settings.
4-46Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Extinction
The withdrawal of the reinforcing
consequences for a given behavior.
4-47Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-48Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Behavior modification techniques, when
utilized positively in organizations, can
be very powerful and effective in
encouraging desired performance.
Because of their potential power, they may
lend themselves to inappropriate or even
unethical uses.
4-49Copyright © 2010 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.